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NATURE  STUDIES 

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FRANK  OWEN   PAYNE 

AMERICAN  BOOK  COHPANY 

NEW  YORK       CINCINNATI       CMICAGO 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIKT  OF 


Received  J/"ff~V~          ,1900. 

Accession  No.  Q/  J  O  (D  .    Class  No. 


GEOGRAPHICAL 


NATURE    STUDIES 


FOR  PRIMARY  WORK  IN  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


BY 


FRANK    OWEN    PAYNE,   M.Sc. 


NEW  YORK-:- CINCINNATI-:.  CHIC  AGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


T-3 


COPYRIGHT,  1898,  BY 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


QEOQ.   NAT.   STUDIES. 
E-P  4 


PKEFACE. 


No  two  subjects  of  study  in  the  primary  grades  are  more  closely 
and  naturally  correlated  than  Nature  Study  and  Observational  or 
Home  Geography,  for  all  phenomena  within  our  ken,  whether  they 
have  to  do  with  man  or  nature,  may  be  classed  under  some  aspect  of 
the  many-sided  and  comprehensive  science  of  Geography. 

In  the  first  three  school  years  these  subjects  are  often  taught 
orally;  but  with  most  teachers  such  oral  instruction  involves  an 
undue  amount  of  labor  in  preparing  the  lessons,  and  not  infrequently 
leads  to  but  vague  and  unsatisfactory  results. 

This  little  reading  book  for  primary  pupils  is  designed  to  lighten 
the  work  of  the  teacher,  and  by  pointing  out  the  often  unrecognized 
relations  between  familiar  phenomena  and  Home  Geography  will 
guide  the  study  of  the  class  to  definite  and  practical  ends. 

The  various  lessons  are  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  the 
youngest  pupils,  and  are  calculated  not  only  to  cultivate  habits  of 
accurate  observation,  but  to  stimulate  a  desire  for  more  knowledge 
and  broader  views  of  the  world  about  us.  They  lead  directly  up  to 
the  point  where  the  more  formal  study  of  geography  from  a  text-book 
begins.  The  form  and  construction  of  these  lessons  is  such  that 
they  may  be  used  both  as  reading  exercises  and  also  for  topical 
recitations. 

The  questions  and  language  work  occasionally  introduced  are 
designed  to  assist  in  cultivating  the  power  of  correct  verbal  expres- 
sion in  the  statement  of  facts.  They  are  for  the  most  part  suggestive 

3 


rather  than  exhaustive,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  teacher  will 
extend  this  feature  of  the  work  by  introducing  many  additional 
exercises  of  the  same  sort. 

The  knowledge  gained  and  the  habits  acquired  through  these 
foundation  studies  ought  to  make  it  possible  for  the  child  to  begin 
the  study  of  elementary  geography  at  an  early  period;  and  it  is 
confidently  believed  that  they  will  enable  him  to  pursue  that  study 
with  a  zest  and  appreciation  which  would  otherwise  be  wanting. 

The  author  desires  to  acknowledge  his  obligations  to  Russell 
Hinman,  author  of  "Eclectic  Physical  Geography,"  for  valuable  aid 
in  the  way  of  plan  and  subject  matter;  to  Matilde  Coffin  of  Detroit, 
and  Ellen  Kenyon- Warner  for  helpful  suggestions ;  and  especially  to 
Emily  G-.  W.  Eowe  of  Akron,  Ohio,  for  poems  signed  with  her  name. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


x  PAGE 

LAND  AND  WATER      .  7 

THE  WATER  UPON  THE  LAND 8 

THE  CHILDREN  IN  THE  RAIN  (Poem) 10 

THE  AIR       ....  .  .....       11 

THE  SUN  AND  THE  AIR 14 

CLOUDS  (Poem) .         .16 

WATER  IN  THE  AIR .        ....       16 

GETTING  MOISTURE  FROM  THE  AIR  .        .        .        .        .        .         .19 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  THE  SNOWFLAKE  (Poem)  *        .         .      21 

WHERE  THE  RAIN  COMES  FROM         .     •  .         .         .         .         .         .       22 

THE  LIFE  OF  A  DEWDROP  (Poem)     .         .         .         .         .         .         .      23 

THE  SEASONS       .        .        .        .        .        ...        .        ...      25 

THE  MONTHS       .         .         .         .         .         .        .        .        .  .26 

THE  ENDLESS  STORY  (Poem)      .         .         .         .        .        .         .         .29 

WHAT  THE  RAIN  DOES 31 

SURFACE 32 

SLOPES "..>.-.         .33 

VALLEYS       .         .         .         ....         .        .        .:       .        .36 

PLANTS  OF  THE  VALLEYS .41 

ANIMALS  OF  THE  VALLEYS 44 

DIVIDES,  HILLS}  MOUNTAINS,  PLATEAUS   .        ...        .         .48 

PLANTS  OF  THE  HIGHLANDS        .         .        .         .        .     L   .        .         .51 

ANIMALS  OF  THE  SLOPES     .         .        .         .        .        .        .        ...      54 

HOMES  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS       .         .        .        .        .  v      .        .      56 

THE  RAIN  AND  THE  DUST          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .57 

THE  SORTING  OF  SILT         .         ... 58 

THE  WORK  OF  STREAMS 61 

THE  WORK  OF  FROST  AND  ICE 65 

THE  VOYAGE  OF  A  PEBBLE  (Poem) QQ 

5 


6 

PAGE 

STREAM  SYSTEMS ,        .        .        .68 

THE  IMPATIENT  RIVER  (Poem)           .        .        ....        .  70 

WATER  IN  THE  GROUND     .         .        . 71 

THE  BUBBLING  SPRING  (Poem) 75 

POOLS,  PONDS,  AND  LAKES 76 

A  REVIEW 78 

A  WATER  SONG  (Poem) 82 

OUR  CLIMATE 84 

THE  SIGNS  OF  THE  SEASONS  (Poem)       .  .        .        .        .        .         .  85 

MORE  ABOUT  CLIMATE        .         .        ...        .        .         .         .  86 

OUR  NEEDS          .        .        .        .        ....         .         .         .88 

FOOD    .        .      >..-••      ,•   "•-.'••         •         •        •-•-•"«-:.•    .        .         .  90 

OUR  FOOD    .        ..'             . *        .  92 

CLOTHING     .        .         . 94 

OUR  CLOTHING    .         .        .        .         .        .        .        .        .         .         .  95 

SHELTER     ..        .         .        .                 .         .  .      .        .        .         .         .  98 

OUR  SHELTER      .         ...         .         ...        .....         .100 

THE  OCCUPATIONS:   FARMING     .         .         .         .                 \        .  j      .  102 

STUDY  OF  A  FOOD-PLANT  —  WHEAT  .         .         .         .        ...  104 

THE  OCCUPATIONS  —  STOCK  RAISING  AND  DAIRYING        . .      ..        .  105 

STUDY  OF  A  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL  —  THE  PIG 107 

THE  OCCUPATIONS  —  LUMBERING 108 

STUDY -OF  TREES          .        •  >     .•        .        .        .        .         .        .         .  110 

THE  OCCUPATIONS  —  MINING       .         .        •      •  •        •        .      -  .         .  Ill 

THE  OCCUPATIONS  —  FISHING     .         .         .         ....         .  113 

THE  OCCUPATIONS  —  MANUFACTURING 114 

MAKING  FLOUR 117 

MAKING  CLOTH 119 

STUDY  OF  PLANTS  —  COTTON 121 

MAKING  IRON  AND  STEEL  ......*...  122 

THE  OCCUPATIONS  —  TRADE  OR  COMMERCE 124 

TRANSPORTATION  BY  LAND         .         .         .         .         .         .         .:       .  125 

TRANSPORTATION  BY  WATER      .         .         .         .         .         .         ;   "     .  127 

WHITE  PEOPLE  AND  BLACK  PEOPLE          .         .         .         .      -  ,         .  130 

RED  PEOPLE  AND  YELLOW  PEOPLE    .         .         .        .        .        .         .  132 

PEOPLE  LIVE  TOGETHER .        .         .  137 

GOVERNMENT  —  HOME         .         .        .         .        ...        .         .  140 

GOVERNMENT — SCHOOL  AND  COUNTRY      .        .  142 


R  A  R  y 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NATUEE  STUDIES. 


LAND   AND   WATER. 

When  we  go  out  of  the  house,  upon  what  do 
we  walk  ?  Do  we  always  walk  upon  the  ground  ? 
How  does  the  ground  feel  under  our  feet?  Why 
do  we  not  sink  into  it?  Do  we  ever  come  to 
something  on  the  ground  which  is  not  hard  or 
solid,  and  upon  which  we  cannot  walk?  What 
makes  these  puddles  of  water  on  the  ground? 

We  often  call  the  ground  land.  Wherever  we 
go  we  shall  be  either  upon  the  land  or  upon  the 
water.  We  can  walk  upon  the  land  because  it 
is  solid.  If  we  should  try  to  walk  upon  the 
water,  we  would  sink  down  into  it.  Then,  if 
we  could  not  swim,  we  might  be  drowned. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  and  fill  the  blank  spaces 
with  the  right  words  :  — 

We  walk  upon  the  .  We  cannot  walk  upon  the 

.  The  land  is .  Water  is  not .  We  sink  into 

if  we  try  to  walk  upon  it.  Some  people  can in  the 

water.  Everybody  can  upon  the  .  Wherever  we 

go,  there  is  either  or  . 


THE    WATER   UPON   THE    LAND. 

When  rain  falls  upon  the  ground,  what  be- 
comes of  it?  Why  does  the  water  gather  here 
and  there  in  puddles?  Do  these  puddles  fill 
the  road?  Why  not?  Does  all  the  water  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  stand  in  puddles  or 
pools?  Why  does  some  of  it  run  along  in 
streams  instead  of  standing  still  in  pools? 

Yes,  the  water  runs  away  because  the  ground 
is  not  even.  The  land  is  lower  in  some  places 
than  in  others.  The  water  runs  down  the  slope 
from  the  higher  land  to  some  lower  place. 

Why  does  the  puddle  not  run  away,  too  ? 

That  is  right.  It  is  because  there  is  no  slope 
from  the  puddle  to  some  lower  place.  The  water 
stands  in  the  puddle  because  the  land  is  higher 
all  around  it.  We  say  it  is  dammed  up  so  that 
it  cannot  flow  away. 

Did  you  ever  make  a  dam  across  the  gutter? 
How  did  you  do  it  ?  See  these  children  making 
a  bank  of  sand  and  stones  across  the  little 
stream.  See  how  the  water  becomes  wider  and 
higher  until  it  runs  over  and  washes  the  dam 


away?      When  the  children  are  making  a  dam 
they  are  building  a  slope  across   the    stream  to 
keep  the  water  in.     B.ut  they  cannot  make  it  high 
enough  and  strong  enough  to  stand  very  long. 
Let  us  think,  now,  of  what  we  have  learned. 

We  have  learned  that 
in  moving  about  from 
place  to  place,  we 


"  They  are  building  a  slope  across  the  stream," 

Avalk  upon  solid  ground.  No  matter  how  far  we 
go,  we  find  either  land  on  which  to  walk  or  water 
on  which  we  cannot  walk.  If  the  water  is  sur- 
rounded by  land,  so  that  it  cannot  flow  away,  it 
will  stand  in  a  pool.  If  there  is  a  slope  to  a 
lower  place,  the  water  will  flow  down  that  slope. 


10 


THE   CHILDREN   IN   THE   RAIN. 

Out  in  the  rain,  with  wind-kissed  cheeks, 
Mabel,  and  Bessie,  and  Little  Boy  Blue 
Were  making  a  world  of  water  and  earth 
Planned  like  the  maps  in  the  books  they  knew. 

A  mimic  ocean  was  hollowed  out, 
Where  winding  rivers  and  brooks  might  flow ; 
Ranges  of  mountains  stretched  by  the  sea, 
And  islands  dotted  the  bay  below. 

"The  rivers  are  running  too  fast!"  cried  Bess, 
"Our  ships  will  be  ruined,  what  shall  we  do?" 
"Bring  heaps  of  dirt  from  the  old  sand  bank, 
And  make  a  dam,"  said  Little  Boy  Blue. 

In  to  dinner  went  laughing  Bess ; 
Boy  Blue  and  Mabel  followed  her  call ; 
The  rain  poured  down  in  a  torrent  wild, 
And  away  went  dams  and  ships  and  all ! 

Islands  and  capes  were  washed  away, 
The  whole  world  was  wrapped  in  a  raging  flood, 
And  when,  next  morning,  the  sun  came  out, 
A  desert  stretched  where  their  ocean  stood. 

—  E.  G.  W.  ROWE. 


11 


THE   AIR. 

Let  all  sit  up  very  straight.  Place  your  feet 
flat  upon  the  floor,  and  throw  your  shoulders 
back.  Shut  your  lips  close  together  and  breathe 
in  while  I  count  "  One  -  -  two  -  -  three." 

What  did  you  do?  What  happened  when  you 
breathed  ?  What  passed  through  your  noses  down 
into  your  lungs  ?  How  do  you  know  that  air  went 
in  ?  Could  you  see  it  ?  No,  but  you  felt  it  pass- 
ing through  your  noses.  Could  you  not  also  feel 
that  something  had  gone  into  your  lungs  to  fill 
them  so  full  ?  Where  does  this  air  come  from  ? 

Yes,  it  is  all  around  us.  Every  time  we  take 
breath,  air  enters  our  noses  and  is  drawn  into 
our  lungs.  We  cannot  see  the  air,  but  we  know 
that  there  is  air,  because  we  can  feel  it,  and 
because  when  we  breathe  it  into  our  lungs,  our 
chests  become  larger. 

Did  you  feel  your  chests  becoming  larger  when 
you  breathed  just  now  ?  Try  again  to  see. 

The  Air  Moves.  -  -  Air  is  all  about  us.  The 
land  and  the  water  are  covered  with  air.  How 
high  do  you  think  it  goes?  Can  you  give  a 


12 

reason  for  thinking  that  the  air  is  among  the 
tree  tops  ?  What  do  we  say  when  the  branches 
of  trees  sway  to  and  fro? 

Yes,  we   say  that  the  wind   is  blowing.     We 
can  hear  it  in  the  tree  tops.     What  is  wind? 


"How  fast  the  clouds  are  sailing!" 

It  is  moving  air.  We  say  wind  is  air  in 
motion.  How  may  we  know  that  the  air  is  as 
high  as  the  clouds? 

Let  us  go  to  the  window  and  look  out.     See 


13 

the  clouds  in  the  sky.  What  are  they  doing? 
Why  do  you  think  they  are  moving?  What 
makes  them  move?  The  wind  is  driving  the 
clouds.  See  how  the  wind  is  tearing  the  edges 
of  those  big  white  clouds ! 

How  fast  the  clouds  are  sailing !  The  air  must 
be  higher  than  the  clouds.  I  wonder  how  high 
it  does  go.  It  certainly  goes  up  much  higher 
than  the  highest  clouds. 

The  Air  has  Color.  —  Now  while  we  are  at  the 
window,  let  us  look  far  away  at  the  trees  over 
yonder  against  the  sky.  See  how  blue  they 
look.  They  look  blue  because  the  air  is  be- 
tween them  and  us.  We  see  those  distant  trees 
through  a  great  deal  of  air.  The  air  has  color, 
then.  Its  color  is  blue. 

Air  is  everywhere.  No  matter  where  we  go, 
on  land  or  water,  we  shall  find  air  over  us 
and  all  about  us.  We  could  not  live  without  it. 

The  air  is  thin  and  light.  It  moves  about 
freely.  When  in  motion  it  is  called  wind.  The 
air  extends  high  above  us.  The  clouds  float 
in  it.  Distant  objects  look  blue  because  the 
air  is  blue. 


14 


THE   SUN   AND   THE   AIR. 

Is  the  air  cold  or  warm  to-day  ?  Is  it  warmer 
at  night,  or  during  the  day?  Is  it  warmer  in 
the  early  morning,  or  at  noon?  On  which  side 
of  the  schoolhouse  is  it  warmer,  on  the  sunny 
side  or  on  the  shady  side? 

Tell  how  the  air  is  heated. 

It  is  heated  by  the  sun.  It  is  the  sunny 
side  of  the  house  which  is  warmer;  and  when 
the  sun  shines  highest  in  the  sky  we  have  the 
warmest  part  of  the  day.  When  the  sun  does 
not  shine  it  is  colder.  Night  is  colder  than 
day,  because  the  sun  is  not  shining  then. 

Wherever  we  go,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  air 
will  be  above  us  and  around  us.  We  shall 
see  clouds  sailing  over  us,  and  we  shall  feel 
winds  blowing.  If  we  sail  upon  the  water,  the 
winds  may  help  to  make  us  go  faster.  The 
sun  will  shine  upon  us,  and  the  air  will  hold 
the  heat  of  the  sun  for  us.  Why  is  the  air 
warmer  in  the  sunshine  than  it  is  in  the 
shfide  ? 

Yes,  the  air  is  somewhat  heated   by  the  sun- 


15 

beams,  and  it  does  not  cool  off  very  quickly.  The 
air  is  really  a  great  heat  holder.  If  the  air  could 
not  hold  heat,  everything  would  be  frozen  even 
in  summer.  Are  you  not  glad  that  the  air  pro- 
tects us  in  this  way? 

Let  us  think  of  some  things  we  have  learned : 
The  land  is  a  solid.  How  do  we  know  it  is  a 
solid? 

Because  we  cannot  sink  into  it.    It  holds  us  up. 

Water  is  a  liquid.  How  do  we  know  it  is  a 
liquid? 

It  moves  about  freely.     It  can  be  poured. 

But  air  is  neither  solid  nor  liquid.  It  is 
much  thinner  than  liquids  and  moves  even 
more  freely.  We  call  such  a  substance  a  gas. 

Write  answers  to  these  questions :  — 

Where  is  the  air  ?  How  do  you  know  that  there  is  air  ? 
How  do  you  know  that  the  air  moves  ?  What  is  air  in 
motion  called  ?  What  heats  the  air  ?  Is  the  air  as  warm  at 
one  time  of  the  day  as  at  another  ?  At  what  time  of  day  is  it 
warmest  ?  How  does  the  air  protect  us  from  cold  ?  Why 
does  a  gardener  cover  young  plants  when  they  are  first  set 
out  ?  Why  does  he  cover  plants  in  the  cool  nights  of  fall  ? 
What  is  a  cold  frame  ?  Why  will  plants  grow  in  a  cold 
frame  earlier  than  in  the  open  air  ? 


16 


CLOUDS. 

Clouds  that  wander  through  the  sky, 

Sometimes  low  and  sometimes  high, 

In  the  darkness  of  the  night, 

In  the  sunshine  warm  and  bright; 

Ah !  I  wonder  much  if  you 

Have  any  useful  work  to  do. 

Yes,  we're  busy  night  and  day 

As  o'er  the  earth  we  take  our  way, 

We  are  bearers  of  the  rain 

To  the  grass,  arid  flowers,  and  grain  ; 

We  guard  you  from  the  sun's  bright  rays 

In  the  hottest  summer  days. 

—  ANNA  K.  EGGLESTON. 


WATER   IN   THE   AIR. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  cloud  in  the  house?  No? 
I  will  make  a  fine  white  cloud  for  you.  Let  us 
take  a  tin  can  or  a  teakettle.  Put  a  little  water 
into  it.  Place  it  over  the  lamp  or  upon  a  hot 
stove. 

Oh,  you  know  what  will  happen !  Yes,  we 
shall  have  a  fine  white  cloud  in  a  very  short  time. 
Did  you  ever  see  such  a  cloud  before  ?  At  home, 


17 

in  the  kitchen,  you  have  often  seen  such  clouds 
coming  from  the  teakettle. 

Is  the  cloud  close  to  the  spout  ?     No,  it  is 
a  short  way  from  the  end  of  the   spout. 
We   cannot    see   any- 
thing between  it  and 
the  spout. 

What  is  this  white 
cloud  ?  It  is  made  up 
of  little  drops  of  water. 

Where  does  it  come 
from  ?  It  comes  from 
the  boiling  water.  A  "w^t is  this  ^*  ci<ma?» 

part  of  the  water  has  risen  in  tiny  vapor  drops 
called  steam,  and  has  escaped  through  the  spout. 

If  it  has  come  through  the  spout,  how  is  it  that 
there  is  no  steam  close  to  the  end  of  the  spout  ? 

There  is  steam  close  to  the  end  of  the  spout, 
but  the  vapor  drops  are  so  tiny  that  we  cannot 
see  them.-  They  are  scalding  hot  there ;  but 
when  they  get  a  little  way  from  the  spout  they 
begin  to  cool,  and  float  together  into  larger  drops 
of  water  which  we  can  see.  These  form  the 
white  cloud  floating  in  the  air. 

GEOG.   NAT.   STUDIES 2 


18 

Take  a  piece  of  cold  glass.  Hold  it  in  a  jet  of 
steam.  See  how  wet  the  glass  has  become.  The 
cold  glass  has  cooled  the  steam  and  changed  it 
back  to  water. 

The  clear  moisture  like  that  at  the  end  of  the 
spout  is  called  vapor,  and  we  say  it  is  invisible 
because  we  cannot  see  it.  When  it  cools  off  so  as 
to  be  white,  like  the  cloud,  we  say  it  is  visible 
moisture. 

The  little  drops  of  water  which  form  the  white 
clotid  are  so  very  small  that  they  float  in  the  air. 
But  what  becomes  of  the  little  cloud?  In  a  little 
while  it  begins  to  melt  away.  Soon  we  cannot 
see  it  at  all.  The  tiny  particles  of  water  are 
still  in  the  air,  but  they  have  been  scattered  far 
apart ;  and  they  are  so  small  that  we  cannot  see 
them  unless  many  of  them  are  close  together. 
And  so  the  visible  moisture  has  been  changed 
back  to  invisible  vapor. 

What  was  that  upon  the  glass?  Yes,  it  was 
visible  moisture,  for  it  could  be  seen. 

Are  the  clouds  in  the  sky  visible  moisture  or 
are  they  vapor  ?  Do  you  think  that  all  the  mois- 
ture in  the  air  is  in  the  clouds  ?  We  shall  see. 


19 


GETTING  MOISTURE   FROM   THE    AIR. 

Fill  a  thin  glass  tumbler  with  finely  crushed 
ice.  See  the  outside  of  the  glass.  It  is  getting 
wet.  It  is  doing  as  the  ice  pitcher  does  in  sum- 
mer. Where  does  this  moisture  come  from  ?  It 
cannot  leak  through  the  glass.  It  must  come 
from  the  air. 

What  happened  when  the  cold  glass  was  held 
in  the  jet  of  steam  ?  Why  ?  It  is  so  also  with 
the  glass  of  crushed  ice.  There  is  invisible  mois- 
ture in  the  air,  and  when  this  moisture  becomes 
chilled  by  the  cold  glass,  the  vapor  particles  of 
which  it  is  made  up  are  brought  closer  together, 
and  it  changes  to  visible  moisture  which  we  see 
in  the  form  of  little  drops  of  water  upon  the  out- 
side of  the  glass. 

There  is  invisible  moisture  in  the  air  all  around 
us.  That  is  why,  after  a  cool  night,  we  find  dew 
on  the  cold  plants.  Did  you  ever  see  the  beauti- 
ful dewdrops  sparkling  on  the  grass  in  the 
morning  ? 

A  million  little  diamonds 
Twinkled  on  the  trees, 


20 


And  all  the  little  maidens  said, 

"  A  jewel,  if  you  please  !  " 
But  when  they  held  their  hands  outstretched 

To  catch  the  diamonds  gay, 
A  million  little  sunbeams  came 

And  stole  them  all  away. 

The  air  always  contains  moisture.  When  it 
floats  high  over  our  heads  in  masses  that  we 
can  see,  we  call  it  clouds.  When  clouds  settle 
down  upon  the  land,  they  are  called  fog.  When 
clouds  become  very  thick,  the  little  drops  of  water 
in  them  unite  with  one  another  to  make  larger 
drops.  These  drops  are  so  heavy  that  they  can- 
not float  in  the  air,  and  so  they  fall  rapidly 
to  the  ground.  This  is  what  we  call  rain. 

Dew  sometimes  forms  in  cold  nights  and  freezes 
as  it  forms  upon  plants.  It  is  then  called  frost. 
The  moisture  of  the  clouds  often  freezes  in  the 
form  of  beautiful  stars  or  soft  flaky  masses  called 
snow.  Sometimes  the  winds  blow  the  snow- 
flakes  around  and  roll  them  together  into  little 
balls ;  then  these  are  partly  melted,  and  frozen 
again  into  hard  little  balls  of  ice.  These  ice 
balls  are  called  hailstones. 


21 


THE   MESSAGE   OF   THE   SNOWFLAKE 

"  The  snowflake  kissed  me, 

As  on  it  sped, 
And  told  me  a  story," 

The  little  maid  said. 
"I  didn't  mind  it, 

So  soft  and  cold, 
And  here  is  the  story 

The  snowflake  told. 

"'You  won't  believe  it, 

I  almost  know, 
But  I  was  a  raindrop 

Before  I  was  snow. 
I  fell  by  the  roadside, 

And  there  I  lay, 
Till  the  sun  drew  me  up 

Through  the  air  one  day, 

" '  On  a  cloud  I  floated, 

Till  cold  I  grew, 
Then  I  turned  to  a  snowflake, 

And  flew  down  to  you. 
And  this  is  my  message, 

So  sweet  and  sure  : 
Be  pure,  like  the  snowflake, 

Be  pure,  be  pure.'"— E.  G.  w.  K. 


22 


WHERE   THE   RAIN   COMES   FROM. 

Where  does  all  the  moisture  in  the  air  come 
from?  Let  us  see.  Suppose  we  take  a  small 
dish  of  water  and  put  it  on  the  window  sill  in 
the  sun.  After  a  while,  if  we  look  at  the  dish, 
we  shall  find  that  it  is  dry.  Where  is  the  water  ? 
Yes,  it  has  dried  up.  The  heat  of  the  sun  has 
changed  it  into  vapor,  just  as 
the  heat  of  the  lamp  changed 
the  water  into  vapor  awhile 
ago.  This  vapor  has  gone  into 
the  air,  leaving  the  dish  dry. 
The  water  which  was  in  the 
dish  is  not  lost.  It  has  only 
changed  its  form  from  water 
to  vapor. 

Much  of  the  water  which 
falls  upon  the  ground  or  stands 
in  puddles  thus  passes  into  the 
air  as  vapor.  You  have  often 
seen  how  these  puddles  dry  up  after  the  rain  is 
over  and  the  sun  has  come  out  again. 

Now,  where  does  the  rain  come  from?    It  comes 


"It  comes  from  the  cloud-,' 


23 

from  the  clouds.  The  clouds  were  once  vapor  in 
the  air.  The  vapor  came  from  the  water  which 
was  once  flowing  over  the  ground  or  standing  in 
pools  and  puddles. 

Much  of  the  rain  that  fell  to-day  is  rising  in  the 
air  as  vapor.  The  particles  of  this  vapor  by  being 
cooled  and  brought  closer  together  will  become 
visible  clouds  or  fogs.  By  being  brought  still 
closer  together  they  will  form  into  drops  and 
become  rain  or  dew,  or  into  icy  flakes  and  become 
snow,  hail,  or  frost. 

In  what  forms  is  the  water  in  the  air  ?  How  does  the  air 
get  this  moisture  ?  How  can  we  get  moisture  out  of  the  air  ? 
What  is  vapor  ?  On  what  kind  of  nights  does  dew  collect  ? 


THE    LIFE   OF   A   DEWDROP. 

Clear,  shining,  and  bright,  a  dewdrop  lay 
In  the  silent  heart  of  a  rose ; 
Where  did  the  dewdrop  come  from, 
And  where  will  it  go  when  it  goes  ? 

Purest  of  water,  the  dewdrop 

Is  drawn  from  the  summer  air, 

And  because  the  grasses  and  flowers  are  cool 

Is  the  reason  it  gathers  there. 


24 

This  little  dewdrop  lay  in  the  rose  — 
Could  it  have  a  daintier  bed  ? 
All  through  the  quiet  night  time. 
Till  the  sun  rose  up  and  said : 

"  Good     morning,    shining 

dewdrop !  " 
Then    it     stirred    with    a 

frightened  start, 
For   the   loving  kiss  of  the 

summer  sun 
Will  break  a  dewdrop's  heart. 

Up,  up  through  the  shining  pathway 
That  led  to  the  higher  air, 
The  pure  and  pearly  dewdrop 
Followed  the  sunbeam  fair. 

A  great  white  cloud  enwrapped  it, 
And  when  it  fell  again, 
It  was  no  more  a  dewdrop, 
But  a  drop  of  summer  rain, 

—  E.  G.  W.  ROWE. 

Of  what  is  a  dewdrop  made  ?  Where  does  the  dew  come 
from  ?  Why  does  it  collect  upon  the  grass  and  flowers  ?  How 
long  did  the  dewdrop  lie  in  the  rose  ?  Who  woke  it  ?  Was 
this  drop  visible  as  she  went  up  the  "  shining  pathway "  ? 
How  did  the  dewdrop  change  ? 


25 


THE   SEASONS. 

What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  the  weather  is 
pleasant  ? 

We  use  the  word  weather  in  speaking  of  the 
air  whether  it  is  hot  or  cold,  wet  or  dry.  Thus 
we  hear  people  say:  "This  is  damp  weather,"  or 
"  This  is  the  hottest  weather  we  have  had."  What 
kind  of  weather  are  we  having  to-day  ?  We  also 
speak  of  cloudy  weather,  stormy  weather,  foggy 
weather,  and  rainy  weather. 

We  have  many  kinds  of  weather,  but  certain 
kinds  usually  come  at  about  the  same  time  of  the 
year.  The  year  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts. 
We  call  these  parts  seasons. 

Do  you  know  the  names  of  the  seasons  ?  They 
are :  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  and  Winter. 

In  spring  everything  is  beginning  to  grow. 
We  call  it  spring  because  plants  are  springing 
from  the  soil.  In  spring  the  weather  is  mild. 
At  first  it  is  cool,  but  it  becomes  warm  at  last. 
In  spring  there  is  usually  much  rain. 

After  spring  comes  summer.  Summer  is  the 
hot  season.  In  summer  the  days  are  long  and 


26 

very  hot.  The  summer  nights  are  warm  and  short. 
In  summer  there  are  many  flowers.  Boys  go 
swimming  when  the  days  are  long  and  hot.  The 
frogs  croak  during  the  short  summer  nights. 

In  autumn  the  weather  begins  to  grow  cooler. 
The  nights  become  longer.  Frosts  begin  to  nip 
the  trees,  and  the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  red. 
The  fruit  ripens,  and  all  the  crops  are  gathered  in. 
Autumn  is  also  called  fall  because  the  leaves  fall 
at  that  time.  Autumn  is  opposite  to  spring. 
It  begins  warm  and  gets  cooler,  until  at  last  the 
ponds  begin  to  freeze  over. 

Then  follows  winter.  In  winter  boys  and  girls 
go  skating.  Christmas  comes.  The  days  are  short, 
and  the  nights  long,  and  oh !  such  cold  weather  ! 
Now  for  snow  and  sleds  and  the  best  fun  of  the 
year ! 

THE   MONTHS. 

Each  season  has  three  months.  The  spring 
months  are  March,  April,  and  May.  In  March 
there  is  much  windy  weather.  April  is  rainy ; 
and  May  is  a  sunny  month.  We  gather  wild 
flowers  in  May. 


27 

The  summer  months  are  June,  July,  and  Au- 
gust. Roses  bloom  in  June.  July  is  the  month 
of  harvest.  On  the  4th  of  July  we  shoot  fire- 
crackers and  burn  fireworks.  Why  do  we  do 
this?  In  August  the  days  are  generally  hot  and 
dry,  but  the  nights  are  often  cool. 

September,  October,  and  November  are  the 
months  of  autumn.  In  September  school  begins. 
In  October  we  gather  red-cheeked  apples  from  the 
orchard,  and  nuts  from  the  woods.  In  November 
comes  Thanksgiving  Day. 

December,  January,  and  February  are  the  win- 
ter months.  Winter  is  cold  because  the  days  are 
short  and  we  get  less  heat  from  the  sun  then. 
In  summer  we  get  more  heat  from  the  sun  be- 
cause the  sun  is  then  higher  in  the  sky. 

At  what  time  of  day  is  the  sun  highest  in  the 
sky  ?  When  is  it  lowest  ?  When  is  it  hottest  ? 

You  see  that  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  is 
when  the  sun  shines  highest  in  our  sky.  Now 
as  the  year  goes  by,  the  sun  rises  and  sinks  in  the 
sky.  In  summer  it  is  highest.  Then  we  have  the 
hottest  weather.  In  winter  it  is  lowest.  Then 
our  weather  is  the  coldest. 


28 


Let  us  plant  a  pole  in  the  school  yard.  If  there 
is  a  flagstaff  in  the  yard,  it  will  do.  Let 
us  measure  the  length  of  the 
shadow  which  the  pole  casts 
at  noon  once  or  twice  a  week 
and  see  how  it  varies.  Keep 
a  record  of  the  length  of 
the  shadow  and 
the  dates  when 
the  shadow  was 
measured.  You 
will  soon  see  that  the  shadow  changes  a  little 
each  day.  It  will  be  long- 
est in  winter  because  the 
sun  is  lowest  then,  and 
shortest  in  summer  be- 
cause then  the  sun  is  high-  ( 
est  in  the  sky. 

Name   the   seasons.      In   what 
seasons    do   boys    go    swimming  ?    \ 
In    what    season    does    Christmas    V 
come  ?     Name  the  months  of  each 
season.      How  many   seasons   are 

there  ?     How  many  months  in  each  ?     That  makes  how  many 
months  in  the  whole  year  ?     In  which  season  do  wild  flowers 


29 


bloom  ?  In  which  do  peaches  ripen  ?  In  which  season  are  the 
trees  without  leaves  ?  In  which  season  do  strawberries  ripen 
here? 

SUGGESTION.  —  It  may  be  useful  to  keep  a  record  of  the 
conditions  of  the  weather  for  a  week  or  two,  the  pupils  mak- 
ing the  observations  and  taking  note  of  :  (1)  temperature, 
(2)  cloudiness,  (3)  the  wind  and  its  direction.  These  may  be 
tabulated  either  upon  the  blackboard  or  by  each  pupil  upon 
paper. 


THE   ENDLESS   STORY. 

A  tiny  drop  of  water 

Within  the  ocean  lay; 

A  coaxing  sunbeam  caught  her 

And  bore  her  far  away ; 

Up,  up,  and  higher  still,  they  go? 

With  gentle  motion  soft  and  slow. 

A  little  cloud  lay  sleeping 
Upon  the  azure  sky ; 
But  soon  she  fell  a  weeping, 
As  cold  the  wind  rushed  by, 
And  cried  and  cried  herself  away- 
It  was  a  very  rainy  day. 

The  little  raindrops  sinking, 

Ran  trickling  through  the  ground, 

And  set  the  brooklets  drinking 


30 

In  all  the  country  round ; 

But  some  with  laughing  murmur  said, 

"  We'll  farther  go/'  and  on  they  sped. 

A  little  spring  came  dripping 
The  moss  and  ferns  among, 
A  silver  rill  went  tripping 
And  singing  sweet  along, 
And  calling  others  to  its  side, 
Until  it  rolled  —  a  river's  tide. 

And  with  the  ocean  blending 

At  last  its  waters  run. 

"  This  is  the  story's  ending  ?  " 

Why  no !  'tis  just  begun ; 

For  in  the  ocean,  as  before, 

The  drop  of  water  lay  once  more. 

—  A.  K.  EGGLESTON. 

Tell  this  story  in  your  own  words.  Was  the  tiny  drop 
alone  ?  Was  she  visible  as  she  went  up  with  the  coaxing  sun- 
beam ? 

Did  you  ever  see  the  "  sun  draw  water  "  ?  What  made  the 
little  cloud  weep  ?  What  kind  of  noise  does  the  rain  make  in 
falling  ?  What  makes  the  brooklets  murmur  ? 

Did  you  ever  see  a  spring  ?  Describe  it.  Where  did  the 
water  in  this  spring  come  from  ?  Where  does  the  water-  in  the 
rivers  go  ?  What  is  the  ocean  ? 


31 


WHAT   THE    RAIN   DOES. 

See  how  it  is  raining !  Just  hear  the  rain  as 
it  pours  down !  See  the  large  drops  falling  down 
before  the  windows. 

What  does  the  rain  do  when  it  strikes  the  side- 
walk? What  will  raindrops  do  when  they  fall 
upon  the  dusty  land  ? 

Each  drop  will  pick  up  a  little  dust.  What 
will  happen  then  ? 

Yes,  it  will  begin  to  run  away. 

Why  does  the  rain  run  along  on  the  ground? 
Why  does  it  flow  in  that  direction  instead  of  any 
other  ? 

Yes,  it  is  because  the  land  slopes  down  that 
way.  Every  raindrop  is  a  worker.  When  a 
drop  strikes  the  ground,  it  picks  up  all  the  dust 
it  can  carry  and  runs  down  the  slope  with  it. 

Look  out  and  see  how  the  water  is  flowing. 
Does  it  flow  towards  the  schoolhouse  or  away 
from  it?  Why?  Where  does  it  go  then ?  Why? 

Which  way  does  the  water  flow  in  the  gutter? 
Why?  We  shall  soon  learn  more  about  what 
water  does. 


32 


SURFACE. 

If  the  surface  of  the  ground  were  quite  flat,  the 
water  would  lie  upon  it  or  soak  into  it.  But  the 
land  surface  is  seldom  perfectly  level.  It  usually 
slopes  more  or  less.  We  cannot  always  see  that 
it  slopes. 

Even  in  cities,  where  the  streets  seem  to  be 
flat,  you  can  see  the  water  flowing  from  the  middle 
of  the  street  to  the  sides.  It  does  not  stop  when 
it  reaches  the  sides  either;  for,  if  you  will  look, 
you  can  see  it  flowing  along  in  the  gutters. 

We  call  sloping  land  a  slope.  The  water  flows 
down  a  slope  until  it  comes  to  the  bottom.  The 
bottom  of  a  slope  is  the  place  where  the  ground 
stops  sloping  downward  and  begins,  sloping  up- 
ward again.  When  you  slide  down  hill  in  win- 
ter, the  sled  stops  at  the  bottom  where  the  land 
begins  to  slope  upward  again.  It  is  the  upward 
slope  that  stops  the  sled.  So  when  the  water 
has  been  running  down  a  slope  and  has  come 
to  such  a  place,  it  stops  just  as  a  sled  does. 
Then  the  water  must  turn  in  its  course  or  spread 
out  in  a  pool. 


33 

Part  of  the  water  that  falls  upon  the  ground 
runs  off  down  the  slopes.  There  is  another  part 
that  sinks  into  the  ground,  and  a  third  part  that 
changes  to  vapor  and  rises  into  the  air  again. 
We  shall  learn  more  of  this  after  a  while,  but 
the  part  which  w^e  see  runs  down  the  slopes. 


SLOPES. 


I  am  going  to  take  a  walk  to-day.     Will  you 
go   with    me?     We    shall  walk   down  the   slope 


"We  call  sloping  land  a  slope," 

GEOG.   NAT.  STUDIES  —  3 


34 

where  we  saw  the  water  flowing.  The  water 
must  run  down  the  slope.  The  slope  tells  the 
water  which  way  it  must  go.  We  shall  let  the 
slope  tell  us  which  way  to  go  to-day.  We  shall 
be  like  little  drops  of  water,  and  so  we  must  go 
down  the  slope.  Then  we  can  see  where  the 
water  goes. 

Here  is  the  bottom  of  the  slope  because  the 
surface  changes.  It  slants  from  a  downward  to 
an  upward  direction.  Do  you  see  why  we  so 
often  find  a  stream  at  such  places? 

It  is  because  the  slopes  on  both  sides  drain 
towards  each  other.  This  makes  the  water  col- 
lect at  the  bottom  of  the  two  slopes.  When 
the  water  reaches  the  bottom  of  these  slopes,  it 
either  stands  still  in  a  little  pond  or  else  it 
runs  along  in  a  trough  formed  by  the  meeting 
of  the  slopes.  If  the  slope  forms  a  little  bowl, 
the  water  forms  a  pool  because  it  cannot  get 
away.  On  page  41  is  a  picture  of  such  a  pool  in 
the  woods.  See  how  clear  the  water  is.  Perhaps 
there  are  fishes  in  the  quiet  pool.  If  the  slopes 
are  not  like  a  bowl,  but  like  a  trough,  the 
water  turns  and  runs  along  in  the  trough. 


35 


Here  is  a  picture  of  a  scene  in  the  country. 
See  the  farmhouse   and  barns  on  the  left  side 


"A  scene  in  the  country." 

of  the  picture.  There  are  other  farms  away 
back  in  the  distance.  The  land  is  rolling  here. 
See  where  there  are  pools  of  water  on  the 
ground !  Do  you  not  see  that  these  pools  lie 
where  the  hollows  are?  There  are  gentle  slopes 
here  and  there.  The  water  flows  down  them, 
and  so  collects  in  the  lowest  places  between 
these  slopes. 


36 

How  many  pools  do  you  see  in  this  picture? 
Yes,  there  are  three  large  pools  and  some 
smaller  ones.  After  a  while  the  sun's  heat  may 
make  these  pools  dry  up,  and  then  the  soil 
will  be  dry,  too. 

Why  does  the  water  collect  in  some  places?  Why  does 
it  change  its  course  ?  What  becomes  of  the  pools  which  form 
during  a  rain  storm  ?  Where  do  we  usually  find  streams  ? 


VALLEYS. 

Two  downward  slopes  which  meet  form  a  val- 
ley. You  can  remember  this  word  valley  because 
it  begins  with  a  letter  "  v,"  which  is  formed  like 
a  valley  by  the  meeting  of  two  side  slopes. 

Take   a   piece  of   paper 
and  fold  it  thus.     We  have 
made    two    slopes    which 
meet  along  the  line  A—B, 
where  you  folded  the  paper. 
If  this  were  made  of  tin  in- 
stead of  paper,  we  could  pour  w^ater  on  the  sides, 
and  it  would  run  down  them  just  as  it  does  down 
the  slopes  of  a  real  valley. 


37 

The  sides  of  a  valley  are  sometimes  very  steep. 
If  the  side  slopes  are  very  wide  and  almost  flat, 
we  say  they  form  a  plain. 

Plains  are  such  gentle  slopes  that  they  seem 
to  be  quite  level.  Sometimes  they  are  many 
miles  wide  and  so  nearly  level  that  you  cannot 
see  that  they  slope  at  all.  Sometimes  the  side 
slopes  of  a  valley  are  so  steep  that  it  is  very 
hard  to  climb  up  them. 


1234 

Fold  your  paper  as  it  is  in  1,  2,  3,  4.  These 
show  some  of  the  ways  in  which  valleys  slope. 

On  the.  next  page  is  a  picture  of  a  valley  with 
gently  sloping  sides.  We  are  near  the  top  of 
one  of  these  slopes,  and  we  are  looking  across 
this  broad  valley.  Do  you  see  how  the  land 
slopes  down  from  us? 

See  how  it  goes  up  again  on  the  other  side ! 
There  is  a  little  brook  down  in  the  lowest  part 
of  this  valley.  It  runs  along  singing  merrily. 
When  it  rains,  the  little  rills  run  down  these 


38 


"A  valley  with  gently  sloping  sides," 

slopes  and  feed  the  little  brook.  But  to-day 
the  sun  is  shining,  and  the  brook  runs  along 
very  merry  and  bright. 

There  are  farms  and  groves  on  the  distant 
slope.  Down  near  the  brook  the  slopes  are  more 
gentle  and  the  soil  is  more  fertile.  Up  on  the 
slope  nearest  us,  the  soil  is  drier  than  it  is  down 
in  the  valley.  See  the  large  stones  on  the  ground 
near  us.  The  lighter  soils  have  been  washed 
down  the  slope,  leaving  these  bowlders  behind. 


39 

In  the  next  picture  is  shown  a  valley  with 
steep  slopes.  See  the  water  in  this  valley.  In 
one  place  there  is  a  row  of  big  stones  crossing 
the  stream,  and  people  who  wish  to  cross  from 
one  slope  of  the  valley  to  the  other  may  step 
on  them.  How  steep  these  slopes  are !  It  is  not 
possible  to  climb  such  steep  cliffs.  Even  plants 
cannot  grow  on  these  slopes.  Sometimes  huge 
masses  of  rock  and  soil  fall  from  the  tops  of  such 
cliffs  and  lie  at  their  bases. 


"A  valley  with  steep  slopes, 


40 


"Are  the  slopes  which  you  see  gentle  or  steep?" 

Here  is  another  valley,  and  through  it  flows  a 
great  river.  See  the  boats  sailing  upon  it.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  slope  where  we  are  standing 
there  is  a  place  where  boats  can  stop.  There 
is  a  boat  there  now.  Some  day  we  shall  take 
a  ride  on  this  boat.  Are  the  slopes  which  you 
see  gentle  or  steep? 

What  valleys  are  near  you?  Have  they  steep  or  gentle 
slopes?  Is  there  a  stream  in  any  of  these  valleys?  If  not  a 
stream,  is  there  a  pond?  If  the  valleys  near  you  have  no 
streams  or  ponds  in  them,  tell  what  you  can  of  the  soil  of  these 
valleys. 


41 


PLANTS    OF    THE   VALLEYS. 

Let  us  go  to-day  into  the  valley  to  see  what 
can  be  found  there.  We  will  go  first  to  the  low- 
est place,  down  where  the  slopes  meet.  There 
is  a  little  brook  there,  and  perhaps  we  shall  find 
a  pool.  In  places  where  the  soil  is  too  soft  to 
hold  the  water,  we  shall  find  it  moist  from  the 
drainage  of  the  side  slopes. 

What  do  we  find  growing  down  here  in  the 
valley?  Ah!  here  are  watercresses  growing  in 


"Perhaps  we  shall  find  a  pool," 


42 


the  clear,  running  water,  and  ferns  and  skunk 
cabbages  in  the  soft,  dark  muck.  See,  here  is  a 
jack-in-the-pulpit,  and  there  are  white  and  pur- 
ple trilliums.  How  rank  the  grasses  and  sedges 
grow  here!  Over  yonder,  where  it  is  too  wet  for 
one  to  go,  are  yellow  marsh  marigolds  which 
children  call  cowslips.  And  there  in  the  quiet 
pool  grow  tall  cat-tails  and  graceful  iris.  They 
are  children  of  the  valley  standing  knee-deep  in 
the  water.  Here  are  green  mosses, 
soft  like  a  carpet,  and  full  of  water, 
which  gushes  out  as  we  step  upon  them. 
White  violets  peep  up  through  the 
mosses,  and  clumps  of  pitcher 
plants  may  be  seen  here 
and  there.  Willow  trees, 
swamp  maples,  and  poi- 
son sumach  are  found 
growing  in  the  wettest 


43 


Watercresses. 


places.  White  and  yel- 
low water  lilies  are  seen 
growing  in  the  water, 
with  their  leaves  floating 
upon  its  surface.  Cran- 
berries, too,  prefer  the 

mossy  bogs,  and  so  do  orchids. 
Why  do  these  plants  grow  here? 
Yes,  these  plants  like  plenty  of 
water.     They  cannot   live  in   dry 
places.      We     always     find     such 
plants  growing  in  very  wet  soil. 

Where  do  you  go  for  huckleberries  ? 
Jacks-in-the-pnipit,  Where  do  you  go  for  water  lilies?  What 
plants  have  you  seen  growing  in  wet  places  ? 
What  do  you  know  about  cranberries?  What 
poisonous  plant  grows  in  wet  places?  Why  is 
the  vegetation  so  rank  down  in  the  valleys? 
Why  do  willows  and  swamp  maples  grow  in  val- 
leys? Why  will  not  cranberries  grow  well 
on  hill  tops  ?  Name  two  plants  which  grow 
in  the  water.  Where  do  you  go  to  gather 
cresses  ?  Why  are  swamp  grasses  and  swamp 
sedges  more  rank  than  other  grasses  and 
sedges?  In  what  soil  do  we  usually  find 
cowslips  growing?  Where  are  the  roots  of  the  water  lily? 
Collect  and  study  arrow-weed,  pond-weed,  and  sun-dew. 


Pitcher  Plants, 


44 


ANIMALS    OF   THE    VALLEYS. 

Hark!  what  is  that?  It 
is  a  muskrat.  He  lives 
.  in  a  hut  which  he 
has  built  in  the 
water.  In  sunny 
places,  turtles  may 
be  seen  lying  on 
the  stones,  sun- 
ning themselves. 
See  how  they  slide 
off  into  the  water 

when  they  see  us  coming.     If  we  look  sharp,  we 

may  see  a  pretty  brown  lizard  gliding  over  the 

soft  green  mosses  to  its  hiding  place. 
See    the    minnows 

swimming  in  the  brook ! 

There    is    a   green   frog 

on    that    mossy    stone. 

If  we  go  near,  he  will 

leap    into    the  water. 

There  are  some  crayfish  hiding  among  the  pebbles 

in  the  brook.     See  them  dart  through  the  water. 


"It  is  a  muskrat,' 


"A  greeu  frog.1 


45 


There  are  plenty  of  mosqui- 
toes here,  too,  and  dragonflies 
go  darting  about  in  search  of 
food.      There    goes    a 
snake  into  the  water; 
he   will    not    hurt    us. 
He    has   a   hole    in    the 
ground     somewhere     near 
here.      See  how  well  he  can 
swim.     He  is  a  water  snake. 

Ducks  and  geese  come  to  the  pond  to  swim. 

Their  toes  are 
webbed  together. 
This  helps  them  to 


Dragonflies  go  darting 
about," 


"There  goes  a  snake  into  the  water," 


46 


paddle  through  the  wa- 
ter. Their  flat  bills 
help  them  to  dig  their 
food  out  of  the  mud. 

Snipes,  cranes,  and 
herons  come  here  to 
wade.  They  are  very 
funny  looking  birds. 
Their  long  legs  make  it 
easy  for  them  to  wade 
out  into  quite  deep  water,  and  with  their  long 
necks  and  long  bills  they  can  reach  far 

down    after    fishes    and    other        Jlf   food. 


"Their  toes  are  webbed  together," 


1  Where  do  lizards  live  ?  " 


What  kind  of  birds  live  in  the 
valleys?     What   is   the   food   of    x^ 
these  birds  ?     Why  do  they  seek 
it  in  the  valley  ?    What  insects  are 
found  near  the  water  ? 

Name   some   animals,  not  birds  and  not   insects, 
which  live  in  or  near  the  water.     What  is  their 
food?      Why  are   there   so   many  mosquitoes    in 
wet  places?      What   brings  the  dragonflies 
to  such  places?     Name   four  living  things 
which  you  have  seen  in  the  water.     Which 
of  these  always  live  in  the  water  ?     Which 
sometimes  come  out  and  leap  upon  the  ground?      Did   you 


A  Goose's  Foot, 


47 


ever  see  a  lizard  ?  How  many  feet  had  it  ?  Where  do  lizards 
live?  On  what  do  they  feed?  How  does  a  crayfish  move 
through  the  water?  Why  does  p 
the  duck  have  webbed  feet? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  snipe's 
long  bill  ? 

Feet  of  birds  are  clothed  with 
scales.  Wading  and  swimming 
would  be  very  hard  if  the  feet 
and  legs  were  covered  with 
feathers.  Procure  feet  of  vari- 
ous birds,  —  chickens,  ducks, 
and  turkeys,  and  study  them 
as  regards  shape,  size,  position 
and  color  of  scales,  and  number 


11  Cranes  come  here  to  wade.1 


and  position  of  toes.     Compare  feet  of  birds  with  those  of  tur- 
tles, frogs  and  lizards,  as  to  number  of  toes  and  covering. 

Now  let  us  repeat  some  of  the 
things  we  have  learned. 

Wherever  the  soil  is  always  wet, 
water-loving  plants  and  animals 
are  found  living  and  growing. 

We  shall  not  always  find  the 
same  plants  and  animals  in  such 
places,  but  we  shall  always  find 
similar  ones. 

In  some  places  the  vegetation 
will  be  much  larger  and  denser,  and 
the  animals  will  be  much  fiercer  and  larger,  but  they  will  be  simi- 
lar in  most  respects.  Birds  with  webbed  feet,  and  birds  with  long 
legs  and  necks  commonly  make  their  homes  very  near  the  water. 


The  snipe's  long  bill," 


48 


"Somewhat  like  ,  ,  ,  the  roof  of  a  house," 

DIVIDES,   HILLS,    MOUNTAINS,    PLATEAUS. 

We  have  taken  a  walk  down  one  slope,  let  us 
now  go  up  another.  Here  is  a  picture  of  such  a 
slope.  Up  we  go,  higher  and  higher.  By  and 
by  we  shall  come  to  the  top. 

Ah,  here  we  are  at  the  top.  At  last  we  have 
reached  a  place  where,  if  we  go  on  any  farther,  we 
must  go  downward.  It  is  somewhat  like  the  high- 
est part  or  ridge  of  the  roof  of  a  house. 


49 

What  happens  to  the  rain  water  falling  here? 
That  which  falls  on  one  side  of  the  ridge  will  flow 
one  way,  that  which  falls  on  the  other  side  will 
run  the  other  way.  The  ridge  of  the  house  di- 
vides one  part  of  the  rainfall  from  the  other  part. 
What  shall  we  call  a  ridge  of  land  which  divides 
the  waters  in  this  way  ? 

Yes,  we  will  call  it  a  divide,  or  v$ate,r  parting, 
because  it  parts  or  divides  all  the  water  falling 
upon  it. 

You  see  that  the  roof  of  the  schoolhouse  is  a 
sort  of  divide.  It  divides  the  rainfall  into  two 
parts.  One  part  flows  down  one  roof  slope ;  the 
other  flows  down  the  other. 

If  the  slopes  of  the  land  are  steep  like  those  of 
the  roof  of  a  house,  we  call  the  line  where  they 
meet  a  ridge,  because  it  is  so  much  like  the  ridge 
of  a  roof.  If  the  slopes  make  a  ridge  which  is  not 
very  high,  we  call  it  a  ridge  or  range  of  hills.  But 
when  these  slopes  are  very  steep  and  long  so  as 
to  make  the  ridge  very  high,  we  call  it  a  range  of 
mountains. 

Sometimes  the  high  land  near  the  top  of  the 
slopes  is  not  at  all  steep,  but  is  almost  flat  like 


GEOG.    NAT.    STUDIES  —  4 


50 


the  top  of  a  table.     We  call  such  high,  almost 
level  slopes,  table-lands,  or  plateaus. 

Have  you  ever  seen  a  mountain?     Here  is  a 
picture  of  one.     See  how  steep  the   slopes  are. 


"Have  you  ever  seen  a  mountain?" 

How  very  high  this  mountain  must  be !  It  is 
higher  than  the  clouds.  Think  what  a  long,  hard 
climb  it  must  be  to  reach  its  top. 

In  this  picture  we  see  .a  man  on  horseback. 
On  the  man's  right  there  is  a  deep  valley,  but 
on  his  left  there  is  a  wall  of  rock.  How  steep 
the  slopes  are!  Do  you  think  that  his  horse 
can  climb  to  the  top  of  this  high  mountain? 


51 

You  have  all  seen  hills.  Is  there  a  hill  in  the 
neighborhood  of  your  home?  Is  it  a  high  hill? 
Does  it  belong  to  a  range  of  hills  ? 

Let  us  see  what  we  have  learned.  The  meet- 
ing of  two  upward  slopes  is  a  divide.  If  these 
slopes  are  short  and  not  very  steep,  they  form  a 
range  of  hills.  Very  high  hills  are  called  moun- 
tains. Mountain  slopes  are  usually  steeper  and 
longer  than  hill  slopes. 

Plateaus  often  border  mountain  ranges.  Hills 
and  mountains  are  great  piles  of  soil  and  rock. 
Valleys  are  hollows  where  the  rock  has  been 
washed  out.  Hills  and  mountains  shed  the  water 
falling  upon  them,  like  a  roof.  Valleys  collect 
this  water  and  carry  it  away,  or  hold  it  in  pools. 


PLANTS   OF   THE   HIGHLANDS. 

As  we  go  up  the  slopes,  the  land  naturally 
becomes  drier  and  less  rich,  because  the  light 
rich  loam  has  been  washed  down  into  the  val- 
leys, and  less  water  sinks  into  the  steep  sides  as 
it  runs  swiftly  down.  We  shall  not  see  our  old 
friends  the  trillium,  the  jack-in-the-pulpit,  and  the 


52 


marsh    marigold    up    here.     The 
slopes  are  too  dry  and  stony  for 
such  plants  to  grow.     They 
cannot     leave     the     moist 
places  down  in  the  valley  where 
we  saw  them  grow- 
ing.   But  we  shall  find 

G-olden-rod.          ,  •,  -. 

r  other  plants  quite  as 

pretty  but  not  so  plentiful. 
Here  grow  the  daisy,  the  butter- 
cup,  the   arbutus,   the   violet,   the 
dandelion,     and      many 
beautiful  grasses. 

Later  in  the  season  we         The  Daisy< 
shall  find  the  slopes  covered  with  asters 
and  golden-rods. 

The    willow  is   a 
great    drinker. 
He    cannot     live 
on  the  dry  hillsides,  but 

Buttercups.       ^     slQpes    are     no£    w^h_ 

out  their  trees.  Maple,  oak,  beech, 
ash,  and  linden  grow  upon  the 
high  lands.  See  how  the  checker- 


53 


berry  creeps  over  the  ground !  See  how  the  col- 
umbine and  azalea  brighten  all  the  woods  with 
their  colors ! 

Farther  up,  where  the  soil  be- 
comes drier,  we  find  laurel  and 
hazel.  Here,  too,  in  the  early 
spring,  the  trailing  arbutus  may 
be  seen,  covering  the  ground  with 
large  patches  of  pink  flowers. 
On  the  broad,  gentle  slopes  are 
fields  of  corn,  wheat,  and  other  grains. 

Still  higher,  where  the  surface  is  dry  and  rocky, 
pines  and  spruces  grow.      Farther  up  the  slope 

there  are  only  a  few  stunted 
plants  peeping  out  from  among 
the  stones.  The  rocky  summits 
will  be  found  almost  bare,  cov- 
ered here  and  there  with  patches 
of  dry  mosses  and  lichens. 


Laurel. 


Arbutus  i 


Write  answers  to  these  questions  :  — 
What  plants  grow  on  the  slopes  ? 
Are  they  water-loving  plants  ?  Name 

five  trees  which  you  have  seen  growing  on  the  slopes.     Where 

does  arbutus  grow  ?     Where  do  lichens  grow  ? 


54 


A  Squirrel, 


ANIMALS   OF   THE   SLOPES. 

What  animals  do  you  expect 
to  find  living  where  the  nut 
trees  grow?  Yes,  here  is  the 
home  of  the  squirrel.  Nuts  are 
the  squirrel's  food.  He  makes 
his  home  where  he  can  get  them. 
Field 
mice, 

chipmunks,  and  rab- 
bits live  on  the  slopes. 
Weasels  and  ferrets 
make  their  homes  in 
the  thick  forests. 
Skunks  and  opossums 
are  seldom 

^^  seen  by  day,  but  they 
make  their  homes  on  the 
wooded  slopes. 

Far  away  from  towns 
\  live  bears,  wolves,  foxes, 
and  many  kinds  of  deer. 
Sometimes     bears    are 


Deer, 


55 


caught  when  very  young  and  tamed.     Then  they 
may  be   taught   many  funny  tricks.     We   some- 
times  see  them  led  about 
the  streets.    Bears  are  fond  *4&fc* 

of  climbing.  ^ 

Wolves   and   foxes  look  - 
very  much  like  dogs.    They 
cannot  climb  trees  as  bears    I 
can.     The  fox  is  sly.     He 
likes  to  rob    the   farmers7 
hen    roosts.      Among    the 
trees  live  many  song  birds. 
Robins,    wrens,    sparrows,    and    hosts    of    other 

birds  build  their  nests 
^j  T    ^  among  the  branches. 

<*miam.  m^-i^&j 

Write  answers  to  these 
questions  :  — 

Where  is  the  squirrel 
found?  Why  does  he  live 
there?  What  do  rabbits 
eat  ?  Describe  a  chipmunk. 
Did  you  ever  see  a  bear? 
What  was  he  doing  ?  Write 
three  statements  about  foxes. 

Name  five  song  birds  you  have  seen.     Why  do  we  set  traps 
for  weasels,  foxes,  and  opossums  ? 


56 


HOMES   OF   PLANTS   AND   ANIMALS. 

Plants  and  animals  are  always  fitted  for  the 
place  in  which  they  live.  The  fishes  have  fins. 
The  birds  have  wings.  The  cat  has  paws.  The 
fish  would  get  on  very  poorly  if  it  had  a  shell  like 
the  oyster.  A  duck  would  make  sad  work  swim- 
ming if  her  feet  had  no  webs  and  were  like  the 
feet  of  a  chicken. 

Each  creature  is  suited  to  its  native  home. 
Plants  and  animals  which  are  fond  of  water  must 
live  where  water  is  to  be  found.  Plants  and  ani- 
mals which  need  less  water  will  live  in  drier 
places.  So  it  happens  that  plants  of  the  valleys 
differ  greatly  from  those  of  the  drier  places  farther 
up  the  slopes. 

We  have  seen  that  the  squirrel  makes  his  home 
in  the  woods  where  the  nuts  grow.  He  wants  to 
be  near  his  food.  Animals  always  make  their 
homes  near  where  their  food  is.  The  dragonfly 
lives  where  he  can  find  the  mosquito,  his  food. 
Birds  with  long  legs  usually  live  near  the  water 
because  they  can  wade  in  the  water  and  catch 
fish  for  their  food. 


57 

No  matter  where  we  go,  we  shall  always  find  it 
true,  that  the  lowlands  have  ranker  vegetation 
than  the  highlands.  We  shall  also  find  that 
different  kinds  of  plants  bring  different  kinds  of 
animals  because  these  animals  depend  directly  or 
indirectly  upon  plants  for  their  food  and  shelter. 


THE   RAIN   AND   THE   DUST. 

When  the  rain  water  falls  upon  the  slopes  and 
runs  down  them,  it  does  not  flow  in  sheets,  but 
in  little  streams.  These  may  be  very  little  in- 
deed. Such  streams  are  called'  rills  or  runnels 
because  the  water  runs  on  the  ground. 

The  water  flows  faster  down  steep  slopes  than 
it  does  down  gentle  slopes,  just  as  your  sled  goes 
faster  along  the  steeper  slopes. 

Is  this  water  clear  when  it  flows  down  a  slope 
soon  after  a  rain  ?  See  how  muddy  it  is.  Get  a 
glass  full  of  this  muddy  water  and  place  it  upon 
the  window  sill  for  a  while.  Pretty  soon  it  will 
settle,  and  you  will  find  the  mud  all  on  the  bottom 
of  the  glass. 

You  have  not  forgotten  how  the  drops  of  water 


58 

which  fell  upon  the  dusty  ground,  picked  up  little 
particles  of  dust.  So  it  is  with  rain  water  falling 
upon  the  land.  Each  drop  picks  up  as  much  as 
it  can  carry  and  runs  away  down  the  slope  with 
it.  If  the  slope  be  steep,  it  runs  faster  and  can 
carry  more.  If  the  slope  be  gentle,  the  little 
runnel  must  go  slower  and  so  carries  much  less. 


THE   SORTING   OF   SILT. 

Take  a  large  glass  jar.  A 
candy  jar  or  fruit  jar  will  do. 
Procure  different  kinds  of  soil. 
There  should  be  coarse  and  fine 
gravel,  sand,  loam,  clay,  and 
rich  vegetable  mold.  Put 
these  in  the  jar  and  add 
a  large  quantity  of  water. 
Shake  or  stir  and  then  set 
away  on  the  window  sill. 
When  the  sediment  has  settled  and  the  water 
above  has  become  perfectly  clear,  examine  and 
observe  the  arrangement  of  the  soils  which  have 
been  put  into  the  jar. 


"Take  a  large  glass  jar,' 


59 

Look  at  the  glass  jar  on  the  window  sill.  The 
mud  has  settled  to  the  bottom.  Look  closely 
at  this  mud.  Where  is  the  finest  part;  the 
coarsest  part? 

The  coarsest  part  is  at  the  bottom.  The  finer 
is  above  it.  The  finest  is  at  the  top. 

The  coarse  part  is  heavier  than  the  fine  part. 
The  water  must  drop  the  coarse  part  first,  and 
then  the  tine  part.  It  always  happens  so  when 
the  running  water  is  stopped  in  pools.  If  you 
dig  where  such  a  pool  has  been,  you  will  find  the 
coarse  gravel  at  the  bottom  and  nearest  the  mouth 
of  the  inlet. 

This  is  because  the  quiet  water  of  the  pool 
checks  the  flow  of  the  stream.  Finer  gravel  will 
be  found  above  it,  and  sand  or  clay  on  the  top, 
leaving  the  clear  water  above  the  muddy  bottom. 
You  can  find  layers  of  such  mud  at  the  bottom  of 
every  pool  when  the  water  has  gone. 

This  sand  or  mud,  brought  down  by  the 
streams,  is  called  silt,  or  sediment.  Where  the 
slopes  are  steep,  the  water  runs  fast  and  carries 
much  silt,  both  coarse  and  fine.  Where  the  slope 
becomes  less  steep,  the  coarse  silt  stops,  and  the 


60 


fine  silt  is  carried  farther  on.  Where  the  small 
streams  flow  into  hollows  and  form  pools  or 
ponds,  all  their  silt,  both  coarse  and  fine,  must 
settle  to  the  bottom. 

Go  out  and  see  the  rain  at  work.      Raindrops 

and  rills  are  great  work- 
ers, but  the  rills  are  by 
far  the  greater  workers. 
Put  on  overshoes  and 
carry  umbrellas  so  that 
you  need  not  get  wet 
while  seeing  them  work. 
Running  water  is  never 
idle.  Every  part  has 
some  work  to  do. 

Let  us  first  go  to 
where  the  water  is  drip- 
ping from  the  eaves  of 
the  house.  How  clean 
the  large  pebbles  are  !  What  has  become  of  the 
fine  soil  ?  The  rills  made  by  the  water  that  has 
fallen  from  the  eaves  have  carried  it  all  away. 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  where  this  fine  soil 
has  been  carried.     How  small  the  rills  are.    Here 


"  The  rills  are  the  greater  workers. 


61 

is  one.  See  how  yellow  it  is  with  mud.  Here  are 
others  running  down  the  slope  towards  the  gutter 
carrying  their  load  of  fine  sand  and  mud. 

Each  little  rill  carries  all  the  silt  it  can.  Small 
stones  and  pebbles  are  rolling  along  in  the  little 
stream  where  the  slope  is  steep. 

Now  find  a  place  where  the  slope  is  not  so 
steep.  Do  you  see  any  pebbles  rolling  along 
here?  Why  not? 

Here  is  a  place  where  the  slope  is  so  gentle  as 
to  seem  flat.  See  what  the  rills  do  here.  They 
drop  all  their  load  of  silt,  and  it  forms  a  mud 
bank.  The  water  flows  through  this  mud  bank  in 
many  channels.  Such  places  are  called  deltas, 
and  you  can  find  them  after  every  rain  storm. 


,     THE   WORK   OF   THE   STREAMS. 

This  is  not  the  only  work  of  the  streams. 
They  are  wearing  out  little  channels  in  which  to 
flow.  How  do  they  do  this  ?  The  running  water 
tears  off  tiny  pieces  of  soil  and  carries  them  away. 
The  rain  has  wet  the  ground  and  softened  it  so 
that  the  little  rills  can  do  this.  The  small  grains 


62 

which  roll  along  in  the  rill  also  help  to  loosen 
soil  from  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  channel. 

Streams  are  everywhere  doing  just  such  work 
as  this.  Up  among  the  hills  where  the  slopes  are 
steep,  the  rills  dig  out  so  much  silt  that  large 
stones  become  loosened.  These  stones  roll  down 
the  bed  of  the  streams.  The  rolling  stone  is 
carried  here  and  there  by  the  water,  knocking 
against  other  stones  until  it  becomes  a  smooth 
pebble. 

So  you  see  every  little  brook  is  a  miller  who 
grinds  stones.  The  brook  grinds  off  the  rough 
edges  of  sharp  stones  and  makes  them  into  fine 
sand  or  clay. 

Pick  up  some  pebbles  and  pass  them  around 
the  class.  See  how  smooth  and  round  they  have 
become.  Once  they  had  sharp  corners,  but  now 
they  are  smooth. 

But  the  pebbles  help  the  stream  too.  For  as 
they  are  rolled  along  by  the  water,  they  rub  on 
the  bottom  of  the  stream  and  loosen  more  soil. 
You  have  seen  pebbles  rolling  along  in  a  little 
stream.  They  were  helping  the  little  stream  to 
dig  out  its  channel. 


63 

Nature  takes  little  rills  and  pebbles  to  help 
her  in  her  great  work.  When  the  rills  flow  to- 
gether, the  stream  becomes  larger  and  so  carries 
more  silt.  When  the  slopes  are  steep,  the  streams 
are  bright  and  active.  They  work  hard,  rolling 
large  stones  and  pebbles  along  and  singing  merrily 
at  their  work.  But  when  they  reach  the  gentle 
slopes,  they  act  as  if  they  were  tired,  for  they  run 
more  slowly  and  drop  first  the  largest  stones,  then 
the  finer  gravel,  then  the  sand,  and  at  last  the 
finest  particles  of  silt. 

When  the  streams  flow  into  a  pond,  they  stop 
running  forward,  and  then  they  drop  all  their 
load  of  silt;  for  the  pond  is  their  resting  place 
where  the  water  stands  almost  still.  When  the 
water  at  last  leaves  the  pond  by  a  single  stream, 
it  is  pure  and  clear,  and  it  flows  on  over  its  clean 
sandy  bed,  singing  because  that  part  of  its  work 
is  done. 

If  we  look  into  the  gutter  on  the  day  after  a 
rain,  and  see  where  the  silt  has  been  left,  we 
shall  always  find  that  where  the  current  has  been 
checked,  and  a  pool  formed,  a  part  of  the  silt 
has  been  dropped  to  form  a  layer  of  mud  on  the 


64 


bottom  of  the  pool.  We  see  then  that  soil  is 
always  being  carried  down  the  slopes  from  high 
lands  to  lower  ones.  This  will  explain  why  the 
mountain  tops  are  often  bare  rocks  and  their 

slopes  become  steeper, 
while  the  soil  of  the 
valleys  becomes  deep- 
er and  more  fertile. 

The  rills  wear  away 
the  soil  and  pick  up 
little  particles.  They 
pass  these  on  to  the 
larger  streams.  These 
in  turn  carry  the  silt 
away.  The  slopes  are 
wearing  down  -  -  the 

A  Valley  cut  through  a  Plateau,  Steep,    slopes     rapidly, 

and  the  gentle  slopes  more  slowly.  Thus  the 
streams  are  wearing  down  the  high  lands  and 
carrying  them  away.  They  are  therefore  building 
up  low  places  by  filling  up  valleys  with  silt. 

Streams  may  be  said  to  be  the  enemies  of 
pools  because  they  try  to  fill  up  the  pools  where 
streams  run  in,  and  they  also  cut  open  the  other 


65 

end  so  as  to  let  the  water  out.  We  may  be  sure 
that  wherever  there  is  a  stream  it  is  doing  just 
such  work  as  this.  Somewhere,  back  among  the 
hills,  the  little  rills  and  brooks  are  feeding  it 
with  silt  to  fill  up  the  pools. 

In  the  picture  we  see  a  valley  which  has  been 
cut  through  a  plateau  by  the  action  of  streams. 
The  high  level  land  is  the  real  level  of  the  coun- 
try. See  how  much  work  these  streams  have 
done  in  carving  out  these  valleys. 

Write  a  story  about  what  a  little  rill  did,  telling  where  it  came 
from,  where  it  went,  why  it  went  there,  and  what  it  did  on  the 

way. 

+ 

THE   WORK   OF   FROST   AND   ICE. 

Did  you  ever  leave  a  glass  of  water  in  a  cold 
room  over  night  so  that  the  water  was  frozen? 
What  happened  to  the  glass  ?  Did  you  ever  see 
a  wooden  bucket  or  a  tub  of  water  which  had  been 
left  out  of  doors  on  a  cold  winter  night?  What 
happened  to  the  bucket? 

What  is  water  changed  into  by  freezing? 
When  a  bucket  of  water  is  frozen  solid,  does  the 
ice  rise  just  as  high  as  the  water  did? 


GEOG.   NAT.  STUDIES 


66 

When  water  changes  to  ice  it  takes  up  moi4e 
room  than  it  did  before.  If  it  is  in  a  small  place 
like  a  bottle  or  a  glass,  it  will  often  burst  the 
sides.  How  powerful  it  must  be  to  break  such 
strong  things. 

What  must  sometimes  happen  when  water 
freezes  in  a  crack  in  the  rock? 

Yes,  it  sometimes  splits  huge  rocks  into  pieces. 
Where  there  is  a  very  steep  hill  of  rock,  you  will 
always  find  many  pieces  scattered  upon  the 
ground  at  the  bottom.  These  pieces  were  broken 
off  by  the  frost.  The  frost  helps  the  water  to 
tear  down  the  hills  and  build  up  the  valleys. 


THE   VOYAGE    OF   A   PEBBLE. 

A  great  rock  hung  over  a  river 

And  looked  down  on  the  shining  sands  ; 
It  knew  that  the  river  journeyed 

To  the  shores  of  distant  lands. 

And  often  it  thought  with  longing 
Of  the  world  beyond  its  view, 

And  wanted  to  see  what  the  river  saw 
And  know  what  the  river  knew. 


67 

The  frost,  in  the  still,  cold  winter, 

Had  pierced  its  stony  heart, 
So,  with  the  spring's  first  flood  time, 

The  great  rock  fell  apart. 

And  a  piece  of  its  shining  granite, 

By  the  river's  current  whirled, 
With  branches  of  floating  driftwood, 

Went  out  to  view  the  world. 

Round  meadows  and  under  bridges, 

Past  wood  and  glen  and  cave, 
Its  corners  sharp  were  rubbed  away, 

By  arch  and  stone  and  wave. 

So  the  pebble  was  carried  onward 

To  the  sea  it  longed  to  reach, 
And  was  thrown  by  a  heavy  breaker, 

Upon  a  sandy  beach. 

With  the  summer's  welcome  hours 
From  his  far-off  mountain  home, 

A  little  boy  came  to  the  seashore, 
On  the  shining  sands  to  roam. 

He  found  the  smooth  round  pebble, 
Lying  white  on  the  sunny  shore, 

And  carried  it  back  when  summer  was  gone, 
To  its  own  old  home  once  more. 

—  E.  G.  W.   ROWE. 


68 


STREAM    SYSTEMS. 

Let  us  go  back  to  the  rills  and  study  them 

more  closely. 
Here  is  one. 
Here  it  joins 
another  rill. 
See  how  much 
larger  the  new 
rill  is.  Let  us 
find  the  little 


"  Such  a  drawing  is  called  a  map  or  plan,"  divide     which 

separates  these  two  rills  before  they  meet  and 
run  on  together.  Here  come  other  rills. 

Draw  lines  upon  a  piece  of  paper  to  show 
just  how  the  rills  look.  Such  a  drawing  is  called 
a  map  or  plan. 

The  uneven  places  on  the  ground  keep  the 
water  from  flowing  down  the  slopes  in  sheets. 
The  rills  flowing  together  remind  us  of  the  twigs 
and  branches  of  a  tree.  The  main  stream  is  the 
trunk.  We  call  these  side  branches  tributaries 
to  the  main  stream.  A  stream  with  all  its 
branches  is  called  a  stream  system. 


69 

The  streams  flowing  down  all  the  slopes  of  a 
valley  at  last  meet  at  the  bottom  in  the  stream 
which  drains  the  valley.  All  the  water  falling 
in  the  valley  must  run  down  its  slopes  and  flow 
off  in  this  way.  Each  little  rill  has  its  space  of 
ground  to  drain. 

The  land  which  sends  its  drainage  into  one 
stream,  is  called  the  basin  of  that  stream.  A 
large  stream  must  receive  water  from  a  large 
basin.  The  rill  basins  are  very  small,  but  when 
all  these  basins  are  taken  together,  they  form  the 
basin  of  the  larger  stream.  Very  large  streams 
are  called  rivers.  You  see  that  a  river  basin  is 
made  of  many  little  basins,  just  as  rivers  are 
made  of  all  the  tributaries  flowing  into  them. 

Now  let  us  think  of  some  things  that  we  have  learned 
about  streams  and  slopes.  We  have  seen  how  the  tiny  rills, 
running  down  the  slopes,  flow  together  and  so  form  larger 
rills.  These  again  flow  together  to  make  larger  streams  or 
brooks,  and  by  uniting  at  last  form  rivers. 

You  will  see  that  every  stream  has  three  slopes  ;  i.e.,  the 
side  slopes  or  banks  which  keep  the  stream  from  spreading  out 
and  the  main  slope  down  which  the  stream  flows.  The  side 
slopes  form  the  river  channel.  The  main  slope  tells  the  stream 
which  way  to,  go. 

Rivers  have  banks,  too,  and  a  main  slope,  just  as  the  little 


70 


rills  have.  The  ground  under  the  water  is  called  the  river 
bed. 

The  space  between  two  side  slopes  is  called  the  channel. 

All  the  land  drained  by  a  stream  is  its  basin.  The  river 
basin  is  the  same  as  the  valley  in  which  the  river  runs. 

A  river  with  all  its  branches  is  a  river  system.  Even  the 
smallest  rills  belong  to  some  river  system. 

Rain  water  does  not  flow  down  slopes  in  sheets,  because  the 
slopes  are  not  smooth,  and  also  because  the  rills  quickly  cut  out 
for  themselves  little  channels. 

These  rills  join  others  as  they  advance  down  the  slopes  of  a 
valley  and  make  larger  rills  until  all  the  water  collects  at  the 
bottom  as  a  stream.  This  stream  with  all  its  branches  is  a 
stream  system,  and  all  the  slopes  drained  by  any  stream  form 
its  basin. 


THE   IMPATIENT   RIVER. 

It  started  far  up  on  the  hill- 
top, 

Its  shining  race  to  run, 
A  tiny  stream  of  water, 
That  laughed  in  the  face  of 
the  sun. 

"  I  want  to  go  faster,  faster," 

It  sang  to  itself  in  glee, 
I  want  to  go  faster,  faster, 
To  reach  the  deep  blue  sea." 


71 


Wider  it  grew  and  deeper. 

But  restless  still  the  same, 
It  danced  and  shone  in  the  sunlight, 

And  sang  when  the  moonlight  came. 

^  ; 

"  I  want  to  go  faster,  faster," 

It  said  to  the  summer  sky, 
"  For  surely  the  sea  will  welcome 

Such  a  noble  river  as  I." 

So  it  shone,  and  sang,  and  sparkled, 

And  high  its  waters  tossed, 
But  alas  !  when  it  reached  the  ocean, 

The  mighty  river  was  lost. 

—  E.  G.  W.  ROWE. 


WATER   IN   THE   GROUND. 

We  have  learned  about  the  water  which  runs 
down  the  slopes.  We  have  also  learned  that 
some  of  the  rain  water  changes  back  to  vapor. 
You  will  remember  that  there  is  another  part  of 
the  water  which  does  not  run  off  down  the  slopes 
and  does  not  change  back  into  vapor.  What  be- 
comes of  this  part  of  the  water  ? 

Oh,  yes,  it  sinks  down  into  the  soil.     Have  you 


72 

ever  seen  water  thrown  out  upon  the  ground? 
What  became  of  it? 

Soil  is  full  of  small  holes  or  spaces  between  its 
particles.  We  say  soil  is  porous.  Water  sinks 
into  the  soil  just  as  it  does  into  a  sponge.  It 
sinks  down  deeper  and  deeper  until  it  finds  a 
layer  of  clay  or  rock.  Water  cannot  go  through 
these  things,  so  it  must  flow  slowly  upon  them  or 
collect  in  hollow  spaces  below  the  surface,  just  as 
we  saw  it  doing  upon  the  surface. 

Have  you  ever  seen  a  small  stream  of  water 
coming  out  of  the  ground?  That  was  a  spring. 
Can  you  tell  me  where  there  is  a  spring  ?  Is  its 
water  clear  or  muddy?  Why?  Have  you  ever 
seen  a  filter  ?  For  what  do  we  use  a  filter  ? 

I  will  tell  you  how  to  make  a  filter.  Take  a 
barrel  or  very  large  jar,  and  put  gravel  or  very 
clean  sand  into  it.  If  muddy  water  is  made  to 
run  through  it,  the  water  will  come  out  clean  and 
clear.  This  is  because  the  tiny  pieces  of  silt 
cannot  pass  through  between  the  grains  of  sand. 
They  are  caught  in  the  small  spaces  among  the 
fine  grains  near  the  top,  and  the  pure  water 
passes  on  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  filter. 


73 


"The  soil  acts  as  a  filter.' 


You  see  now  why  spring  water  is  clear.  The 
soil  acts  as  a  filter.  It  lets  the  water  go  through 
it,  but  the  silt  cannot  get  through.  At  last 
the  water  soaks 
down  until  it 
comes  to  the 
layer  of  clay  or 
rock  which  will 
not  let  it  pass 
through.  Then 
the  water  flows 
along  on  this 
layer  under  ground  until  it  finds  a  hillside  where 
it  can  run  out.  The  place  where  it  comes  out  is 
a  spring. 

Spring  water  is  usually  clear  and  cold,  because 
it  has  been  so  long  under  ground,  where  the  sun's 
heat  cannot  warm  it. 

But  what  shall  we  do  when  we  want  water  to 
drink?  It  is  not  always  easy  to  find  a  spring. 
If  we  want  to  get  water  without  going  to  a  spring, 
we  may  almost  always  find  it  by  digging  down 
deep  into  the  ground. 

What  do  we  call  such  a  hole  in  the  ground  ? 


74 


Oh,  yes,  it  is  a  well.  Some  wells  are  dug, 
some  are  bored,  and  some  are  made  by  driving 
a  pipe,  straight 
down  into  the 
ground. 

Try  to  realize, 
then,  that  every 
time     it    rains, 
the  ground  soaks 
up    large   quan- 
tities  of   water, 
that     this    water 
passes  downward  be- 
not  on  it  as  the  rills 
leaves  its  silt  behind 
pure    and    clear    as 
down ;    and  that   at 
layer  through  which 


low  the  surface, 
do;  that  this  water 
it  and  becomes 
it  filters  farther 
last,  reaching  a 
it  cannot  pass,  it 
creeps  along  until  it  finds  an  outlet  on  the  side 
of  some  slope.  Here  it  comes  bubbling  forth"  as 
a  spring. 

Springs  are  often  the  sources  of  rivers.  No 
matter  where  we  are,  if  we  dig  down  far  enough, 
we  shall  find  water.  Such  holes  are  wells.  We 


75 

shall  find  that  wells  have  been  dug  almost  every- 
where upon  the  land.  If  there  were  no  wells,  we 
should  suffer  for  the  want  of  water  to  drink. 

Copy  these  sentences  and  fill  the  blank  spaces :  — 

We  need to  drink.     Water  which  comes  gushing  out 

of  the  ground  is  called  a  .     When  we  do  not  live  near  a 

spring  we  can  get  water  by  digging  a .     We  get  the  water 

out  of  a  well  by  means  of ,  or . 


THE   BUBBLING   SPRING. 

Down  in  the  orchard,  a  bubbling  spring, 

Ripples  out  from  its  ferny  bed ; 
The  water  is  sweet  and  cool  and  pure. 
'Though  the  brook  run  dry  you  are  ever  sure 

To  find  that  silver  thread. 

Always  the  same  in  the  fresh  May  days, 

Or  in  the  summer's  burning  heat, 
It  bubbles,  and  flows,  and  softly  sings 
Of  the  clearest,  purest,  loveliest  things 

In  a  voice  that  is  low  and  sweet. 

Down  in  the  orchard  the  children  go, 

And  beautiful  lessons  learn, 

As  they  drink  of  the  water,  and  list  to  the  song, 
Of  the  limpid  spring  as  it  bubbles  along, 

By  the  side  of  the  waving  fern — E.  G.  w.  HOWE. 


76 


POOLS,   PONDS,   AND   LAKES. 

Did  you  ever  make  a  dam  out  of  stones  and 
sticks  and  mud  to  keep  the  brook  from  running  ? 
That  made  the  little  stream  spread  out  wide  and 


A  Pool, 


get  deeper  until  it  flowed  over  the  dam.  When 
larger  streams  are  dammed,  they  spread  out  in 
the  same  way,  often  filling  wide  valleys,  and  then 
they  form  what  we  call  ponds  or  lakes. 

Ponds  are  small,  but  some  lakes  are  so  large 


77 

that  men  can  sail  on  them  for  days  and  not  see 
any  land.  A  lake  is  formed  whenever  a  stream 
flowing  through  a  valley,  becomes  stopped  so  that 
it  cannot  find  its  way  out.  Then  it  rises  higher 
and  higher,  overflows  its  banks  and  spreads  out 
very  wide.  When  the  water  rises  high  enough 
to  run  over  the  dam,  it  flows  on. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  lake?     Was  it  a  large  lake? 

Streams  which  flow  into  lakes  are  called  inlets 
because  they  let  the  water  in  to  fill  the  lake. 
Streams  which  flow  away  from  lakes  are  called  out- 
lets because  they  let  the  water  out  of  the  lakes. 

Lakes  have  several  inlets,  and  yet  they  sel- 
dom have  more  than  one  outlet.  This  is  because 
the  outlet  always  is  at  the  lowest  place  in  the 
dam,  and  there  are  seldom  two  lowest  places.  We 
have  already  learned  how  busily  the  inlets  are 
bringing  their  silt  to  fill  up  the  lakes,  and  how 
the  outlets  are  cutting  out  their  channels  deeper 
so  as  to  lower  the  surface  of  the  lakes. 

Some  lakes  are  very  large.  They  often  cannot 
be  told  from  the  ocean  as  one  looks  at  them.  In 
mountain  regions  are  often  many  beautiful  deep 
lakes. 


78 


''Lakes  have  several  inlets  and  ,  ,  ,  one  outlet." 


Here  is  a  pic- 
ture of  a  lake.    See 
how  quiet  the  water 
is.     This  lake  is  fed  by  streams  which  flow  down 
the  slopes  of  the  mountains. 

It  is  not  a  very  large  lake.  The  outlet  is  on 
this  side.  On  the  other  side  you  can  see  two 
inlets. 


A   REVIEW. 


We  live  on  the  land.  The  land  is  solid.  It 
stretches  away  in  every  direction.  No  matter 
where  we  go  upon  the  land  we  shall  surely  come 


79 

to  water  sooner  or  later.  This  water  is  either 
at  rest  in  pools  or  lakes,  or  it  is  flowing  in 
streams  on  the  surface. 

Over  us  and  all  about  us  is  the  air.  Air  is  a 
gas.  We-breathe  it,  and  we  cannot  live  without  it. 
Clouds  float  in  the  air,  and  when  the  air  moves 
we  call  it  wind.  The  air  always  contains  more 
or  less  moisture  in  the  form  of  invisible  vapor. 

When  the  air  is  cooled,  it  loses  some  of  its 
vapor.  This  vapor  may  appear  in  different  forms, 
such  as  clouds  and  fog,  and  also  dew,  rain,  hail, 
snow,  and  frost. 

All  the  heat  comes  from  the  sun.  The  air 
helps  to  collect  and  hold  the  heat  of  the  sun  and 
so  to  keep  us  from  freezing.  Part  of  the  water 
on  the  land  is  always  changing  to  vapor,  and  so 
the  air  keeps  getting  back  in  vapor  what  it  gives 
to  us  in  rain  and  snow. 

Part  of  the  wrater  flows  down  the  slopes  of 
the  land  in  rills,  which  meet  and  form  streams. 
Another  part  of  the  water  sinks  into  the  soil  and 
creeps  along  under  ground  until  it  finds  an  outlet. 
Openings  made  down  straight  into  the  ground 
until  water  is  found,  are  called  wells. 


80 

If  we  follow  down  a  slope,  we  shall  at  length 
come  to  a  lowest  place  beyond  which  the  land 
slopes  upward.  Such  a  hollow  is  a  valley,  and 
since  it  is  the  lowest  place,  water  is  generally 
found  in  it  either  as  a  lake  or  as  a  stream. 

Valleys  usually  have  three  slopes:  the  two 
side  slopes  or  banks  which  keep  the  stream  in 
its  channel,  and  the  main  slope  which  shows 
the  stream  which  way  to  flow. 

Slopes,  when  almost  flat,  are  called  plains.  All 
the  slopes  which  conduct  water  to  a  stream  make 
up  the  stream  basin.  If  we  follow  up  a  slope,  we 
shall  at  last  come  to  a  highest  place,  or  divide, 
beyond  which  the  land  slopes  downward.  Steep 
slopes  of  the  low  divides  are  hills.  Very  high 
hills  are  mountains.  When  the  slopes  of  very 
high  land  are  gentle  or  almost  flat,  they  are  called 
plateaus. 

Long  ridges  of  hills  or  mountains  are  called 
mountain  chains. 

A  stream  with  all  its  branches  and  rills  forms 
a  river  system.  A  river  system  drains  all  the 
slopes  of  its  basin.  Anything  which  keeps  the 
water  of  a  stream  from  flowing  is  a  dam.  Dams 


81 

may  be  made  by  men,  or  they  may  be  natural. 
Dams  cause  the  water  to  rise  and  overflow  the 
channels  of  the  streams.  When  dams  stop  the 
flow  of  small  streams,  ponds  are  formed.  In 
larger  streams  they  form  lakes. 


"How  does  this  lake  differ  from  the  other?" 

Here  is  a  picture  of  another  lake.  Do  you  see 
the  streams  flowing  into  it  from  the  steep  slopes 
on  the  other  side?  How  does  this  lake  differ 
from  the  other  shown  in  the  picture  on  page  78  ? 

Streams  do  much  work :  (1)  by  wearing  their 
beds ;  (2)  by  carrying  away  the  fine  silt  brought 


GEOG.  NAT.   STUDIES  —  6 


82 

to  them  from  the  side  slopes  by  the  rain-formed 
rills.  Dropping  the  heaviest  particles  first  and 
the  finer  ones  later,  they  may  flow  into  quiet  pools 
where  they  drop  all  their  silt  and  flow  on  clear. 

Streams  wear  away  the  soil  from  the  moun- 
tains and  carry  it  to  the  valleys,  leaving  the 
mountains  bare  and  giving  to  the  valleys  a  deep 
fertile  soil.  The  real  work  of  the  streams  is  to 
wear  down  and  carry  away  the  land. 

Differences  in  moisture  and  richness  of  soil 
cause  differences  in  the  plant  life  of  hills  and 
valleys.  These  differences  in  plant  life  make  dif- 
ferences in  the  animals  which  go  where  they  can 
find  suitable  food. 

You  see  what  a  very  important  and  useful  wrork 
the  water  upon  the  land  does.  Here  is  a  little 
poem  which  tells  us  what  water  does. 


A  WATER   SONG. 

Oh,  I  am  everywhere. 
Water,  water  clear, 

In  the  earth  and  air, 
Some  way  I  appear. 


83 


In  the  air  I  fly, 

Rain  and  snow  and  dew, 
Vapor,  fog,  and  cloud, 

In  the  hailstones  too. 

On  the  earth  I  flow, 

River,  brook,  and  sea, — 
Everywhere  you  go, 

You  find  some  trace  of  me. 

In  springs  that  bubble  up, 

In  falls  that  hurry  down, 
In  hidden  country  woods, 

In  noisy  heart  of  town. 

In  the  summer  time 

I  fall  in  gentle  showers, 
And  sparkling  dewdrops  gleam 

Among  the  leaves  and  flowers. 

New  life,  new  hope,  new  strength 

To  all  on  earth  I  give; 
Without  my  blessed  presence 

No  man  nor  plant  could  live. 

In  the  winter  time 

I  come  as  ice  and  snow, 
As  hail  and  sleet  I  fall, 

And  everywhere  I  go.— E.  G.  w.  ROWE. 


84 


OUR   CLIMATE. 

Is  the  weather  warm  to-day,  or  is  it  cold  ?  Is 
it  always  like  to-day  ?  When  do  we  have  warm 
weather?  When  cold  weather?  What  is  the  hot 
season  called;  the  cold  season? 

What  season  comes  between  summer  and  win- 
ter? What  do  we  call  the  season  between 
winter  and  summer?  How  can  you  tell  spring 
from  fall?  When  do  the  buds  start  and  the  seeds 
begin  to  grow  ?  When  do  the  leaves  change  color 
and  begin  to  fall  from  the  trees? 

In  what  season  is  it  necessary  to  light  fires  in 
our  houses?  Why  do  we  wear  thick  clothes  in 
one  season  and  thin  ones  in  another? 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  heat  of 
the  air  in  summer  and  in  winter.  Do  you  not 
remember  how  we  tie  up  our  ears  and  button 
up  our  coats  in  winter  to  keep  out  the  cold 
air,  and  how  hot  the  wind  feels  blowing  across 
the  fields  in  summer? 

In  what  form  is  the  moisture  which  falls  in 
summer  ?  What  form  does  it  take  in  winter  ?  In 
which  of  the  seasons  does  the  most  moisture  fall? 


85 

Yes,  in  most  places,  the  greatest  amount  of 
moisture  falls  in  the  summer  season.  It  is  not 
always  easy  to  believe  that  more  moisture  falls  in 
summer  than  in  any  other  season,  because  we 
usually  have  so  much  snow  upon  the  ground  in 
winter.  But  in  summer  the  rain  sinks  down  into 
the  soil  or  runs  off  so  rapidly  that  we  do  not  real- 
ize how  much  has  actually  fallen. 


THE   SIGNS   OF   THE   SEASONS. 

What  does  it  mean  when  the  bluebird  flies 
Over  the  hills,  singing  sweet  and  clear? 

When  violets  peep  through  the  blades  of  grass? 
These  are  the  signs  that  spring  is  here. 

What  does  it  mean  when  berries  are  ripe  ? 

When  butterflies  flit,  and  honey  bees  hum? 
When  cattle  stand  under  the  shady  trees? 

These  are  the  signs  that  summer  has  come. 

What  does  it  mean  when  crickets  chirp  ? 

And  away  to  the  south  land  the  wild  geese  steer  ? 
When  apples  are  falling,  and  nuts  are  brown? 

These  are  the  signs  that  autumn  is  here. 


86 

What  does  it  mean  when  the  days  are  short  ? 

When  the  leaves  are  gone  and  the  brooks  are  dumb? 
When  the  fields  are  white  with  the  drifting  snows? 

These  are  the  signs  that  winter  has  come. 

The  old  stars  set  and  the  new  ones  rise, 

And  skies  that  were  stormy  grow  bright  and  clear, 

And  so  the  beautiful,  wonderful  signs 

Go  round  and  round  with  the  changing  year. 

—  M.  E.  N.  HATHAWAY. 


MORE   ABOUT   CLIMATE. 

If  a  place  is  warm  all  the  year,  it  is  said  to 
have  a  warm  climate ;  if  cold,  we  say  it  has  a 
cold  climate. 

Some  places  are  neither  warm  all  the  year  nor 
cold  all  the  year.  The  temperature  of  the  air  in 
such  places  varies  from  warm  to  cold  and  from 
cold  to  warm.  Such  a  climate  is  variable,  but  we 
usually  call  it  a  temperate  climate. 

What  kind  of  climate  have  we  here,  cold,  warm, 
or  temperate  ? 

When  a  place  has  much  rain,  its  climate  is  said 
to  be  moist.  If  little  or  no  rain,  it  has  a  dry 
climate.  Is  the  climate  here  moist  or  dry? 


87 

What  makes  the  air  warm  ?  Yes,  it  is  the  sun. 
Some  times  it  shines  more  directly  than  at  others. 
In  the  summer  the  sun  at  noon  is  more  nearly 
overhead  than  it  is  in  winter.  Then  the  earth 
and  air  become  much  warmer.  Differences  of 
climate  are  due  to  the  amount  of  sunshine  which 
different  places  receive. 

If  we  walk  out  in  early  spring  before  all  the 
snow  has  gone,  we  shall  find  that  sunny  slopes 
have  lost  their  snow  first  and  that  buds  and  seeds 
begin  to  grow  on  such  slopes  before  they  do  on 
land  which  slopes  away  from  the  sun.  The  cli- 
mate of  a  place  then  depends  upon  the  sunshine 
it  receives  and  upon  the  direction  of  its  slope. 

By  and  by  w^e  shall  see  how  plants  and  animals 
depend  upon  climate.  We  shall  learn  that  trees 
keep  their  leaves  all  the  year  in  countries  having 
a  warm  climate,  and  that  in  places  having  a  vari- 
able climate  plants  and  even  some  animals  must 
sleep  through  the  long  winters.  Plants  and  ani- 
mals that  are  not  fitted  to  the  climate  in  which 
they  live  are  apt  to  die  young,  hence  we  generally 
find  them  wonderfully  well  adapted  or  fitted  to 
the  climate  and  the  surroundings. 


88 


OUR   NEEDS. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  plant  with  its  leaves  hang- 
ing limp  and  withered  ?     What  could  you  give  to 

that  plant  to  make  its 
leaves  stand  out  fresh 
and  green  on  the  stem  ? 
Yes,  the  plant  was 
thirsty  and  needed  wa- 
ter. You  gave  water 
to  the  plant,  and  then 
it  became  refreshed. 

When  we  awake  in 
the  morning  we  feel 
hungry.  We  have  eaten 
i  nothing  since  supper 
the  night  before,  and 
our  bodies  have  been 
wearing  away  during 
the  night.  We  need  food.  You  all  know  what 
it  is  to  feel  hungry.  Hunger  is  the  feeling  which 
tells  us  that  we  need  food. 

Plants  and  animals  must  have  food.     The  need 
of  food  is  the  principal  need  we  have.     But  there 


"Birds  have  nests.' 


89 


8. 


are   other  things  which  we  must  have.      What, 
next  to  food,  do  we  need  most? 

Oh,  yes,  we  also  need  clothing.  Nature  fur- 
nishes clothing  to  most  animals,  and  dresses  them 
in  fur,  hair,  feathers,  or  scales,  as  is  best  fitted  to 
their  mode  of  life. 

Where  it  is  always 
warm,  very  little  or  no 
clothing  is  needed ;  but 
we  live  where  it  is 
sometimes  warm  and 
at  other  times  cold. 
We  must  have  clothing 
then  to  keep  us  warm. 

Could  we  be  perfectly 
happy  if  we  had  plenty 
of  food  and  plenty  of 
clothing,  but  nothing 
else?  Can  you  not 
think  of  one  other  thing  which  we  greatly  need  ? 

Oh,  yes,  we  need  some  sort  of  a  home  to  live 
in.  That  is  called  shelter.  All  animals  need 
shelter.  Birds  have  nests;  foxes  have  dens; 
snakes  have  holes. 


"Foxes  have 


90 


We    should   be   very  unhappy  if   we   had   no 
houses  to  shelter  us  in  cold  and  stormy  weather. 

We  shall  soon  see  that 
most  of  the  work  which 
men  do  is  in  some  way 
connected  with  food, 
clothing,  or  shelter. 


Snakes  have  holes.' 


FOOD. 

Did  you  ever  see  a 
robin  hopping  along 
with  a  worm  in  his  bill  ? 
Where  did  he  get  the 
worm  ?  What  will  he  do 
with  it  ?  Are  other  birds  fond  of  worms  ? 

Did  you  ever  see  two  little  chickens  quarreling 
over  a  worm  and  pulling  it  between  them  ?  Did 
you  ever  see  the  hens  standing  around  where  a 
man  is  digging,  waiting  to  pick  up  the  worms  as 
they  were  dug  out  of  the  ground?  Tell  me  some- 
thing else  that  birds  eat. 

Sparrows  sometimes  come  to  the  front  of  my 
window  to  pick  up  crumbs  from  the  ground. 


91 


Once  I  saw  a  pretty  bird  with  a  bright  red 
head,  running  up  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  Soon  he 
stopped  and  began  to  drum  on  the  bark  with  his 
bill.  He  was  a  woodpecker.  What  do  you  sup- 
pose he  was  doing  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree  ? 

Yes,  he  was  drumming  on  the  bark  to  find  a 
hollow  place  where  grubs  might  be  hidden. 

Birds  must  have  food.     Some  birds  eat  grain, 
and  some  live  on  berries 
and  seeds. 

Do  all  animals  live  on 
the  same  kinds  of  food? 

Oh,  no ;  every  living 
creature  has  some  kind  of 
food  of  its  own.  The  mos- 
quito feeds  on  blood.  The 
dragon  fly  eats  mosqui- 
toes. The  squirrel  is  fond 
of  nuts.  The  cat  and  dog 
feed  on  meat.  The  cow 
eats  grass.  Grubs  often 
live  on  rotten  wood,  and  some  worms  get  their 
food  by  swallowing  earth  and  feeding  on  the  very 
small  plants  which  grow  in  it. 


He  was  a  woo 


92 


Potatoes, 


OUR   FOOD. 

Why  do  we  eat?     We  eat  because  our  bodies 
are  constantly  wearing  away,  and  we  must  make 

up  for  this  loss  by  eating 
food.  Food  also  helps  to 
keep  us  warm  and  makes 
us  grow. 

Did  you  ever  think  that 
most  of  our  food  comes 
from  the  ground  ?  Not  only  potatoes,  sweet  pota- 
toes, onions,  turnips,  and  some  other  vegetables 
are  dug  out  of  the  ground,  but  all  the  plant  food 
that  we  eat  grows  out  of  the  ground. 

Plants  draw  much  of  their  substance  from  the 
air  through  their  leaves, 
but  some  from  the  ground 
through  their  roots.  That 
is  the  reason  why  the 
farmer  puts  fertilizers 
upon  the  soil.  Fertilizers 
are  foods  for  plants. 

But  our  food  does  not  all  of  it  come  directly 
from  the  ground.     We  eat  animal  food  also.     We 


Cabbages, 


93 

eat  beef,  pork,  mutton,  fish,  and  game.     But  the 

animals  on  which  we  feed  get  their  food  from  the 

plants.      And   the   plants 

get  theirs  out  of  the  air 

and  the  ground.     Thus  all 

our  food  comes  directly  or  strawberries, 

indirectly  out  of  the  ground  and  the  air. 

What  is  our  food  ?  We  eat  a  great  many  kinds 
of  food.  Some  is  .dug  from  the 
ground.  It  is  mineral  food.  Of 
such  foods  salt  and  water  are  the 
most  common.  The  greater  part 
of  our  food  is  vegetable  food. 
It  is  prepared  from  plants 
themselves,  as  cabbages  and  po- 
tatoes; or  it  is  made  from  the  seeds  of  a  plant, 
as  flour,  meal,  starch ;  or  it  is  the  fruit  of  a 
plant,  as  strawberries,  melons,  apples.  All  the 
rest  of  our  food  comes  from  animals.  From  the 
cow  we  get  milk  and  beef ;  from  the  sheep,  mut- 
ton ;  and  from  the  hog,  pork.  Fish,  game,  and 
poultry  are  animal  foods. 

Name  some  game  animals.     What  vegetable  food  did  you 
eat  for  breakfast  ?     What  animals  are  raised  for  food  ? 


94 


CLOTHING. 

What  kind  of  clothing 
has  the  cat?  The  fish? 
The  turtle  ?  Nature  gives 
various  kinds  of  clothing 

to  various  animals.      The  dog  would  look  strange 

if  he  had  scales  like  a  perch. 

A  robin  could  not  fly  if  he 

was  clothed  with  a  shell  like 

the  oyster.   Most  living  things 

have   some    kind   of   clothing.     This  clothing  is 

always  suited  to  the  place 
where  the  animals  live. 
The  snake  wears  a  coat 
of  scales  which  help  him 

in  moving  about  and  make  him  smooth  so  that  he 

can  creep  into  very  small  holes. 
Many   animals    shed 

their    coats    in    warm 

weather     and     grow  .."•••a  - 

thicker  coats  when  win- 
ter comes.    When  does 

the  cat's  hair  come  out  ? 


95 


When  does  the  horse  get  his  fresh  coat  of  hair? 
When  do  the  hens  moult  ? 

Nature  is  very  kind  to  animals.  She  thins 
their  coats  when  weather  is  warm  and  gives  them 
thicker  coats  when  they  need  them.  Nature 
does  this  for  the  animals  because  they  do  not 
know  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves. 


OUR   CLOTHING. 

What  do  we  wear  in 
winter ;  in  summer  ? 
Of  what  is  our  clothing 
made?  Most  of  the 
clothing  that  is  worn  is 
made  of  cotton,  wool, 
silk,  or  linen. 

Where  do  we  get 
cotton  ?  It  grows  upon 
a  plant  in  warm  coun- 
tries. It  is  part  of  the  covering  of  the  cotton  seed. 

Linen  grows  also.     It  is  part  of  the  bark  of  the 
flax  plant.     Did  you  ever  see  flax  growing? 

Here  is  an  interesting  little  caterpillar.     He  is 


A  Silkworm, 


96 

not  a  worm,  though  some  people  call  him  a  silk- 
worm. He  feeds  upon  leaves  and  makes  our 
silk  in  the  form  of  a  covering  for  himself.  It  is 


"Wool  comes  from  sheep," 

made  of  fine  threads  such  as  spiders  spin.  Men 
spin  this  fine  covering  into  floss  and  weave  it  into 
cloth,  called  silk,  for  our  clothes. 

Wool  comes  from  the  sheep.     You  see  men  in 
the    picture    shearing    sheep.      The    wool    which 


97 


How  an  Arab  dresseSi  How  a  Laplander  dressesi 

they  cut  from  the  sheep's  backs  will  be  spun  into 
threads  and  woven  into  cloth. 

All  that  we  wear  comes  from  the  ground  as  our 
food  did.  Cotton  and  flax  grow  from  the  soil,  and 
wool  and  silk  come  from  animals  which  feed  upon 
things  growing  out  of  the  soil. 

In  different  countries  people  dress  differently. 
Some  of  these  people  will  look  very  strange  to 
us  because  their  clothing  is  so  odd.  Notice  the 
Arab  and  the  Laplander  in  the  pictures. 

GEOG.   NAT.   STUDIES 7 


98 


j    Prairie  Dogs'  Home, 


SHELTER. 

Nearly  all  animals 
must  have  protection 
from  the  rain,  the  wind, 
the  cold,  the  heat.  Cloth- 
ing is  a  sort  of  protec- 
tion. But  clothing  is 
usually  not  enough  to 
protect  us  from  the  cold 

of  winter  and  the  heat  of  summer.  A  shelter  is 
needed  from  hot,  cold,  and  rainy  weather.  Some 
creatures  creep  into  --rN 

holes  in  the  ground 
for  shelter.  Did  you 
ever  find  such  a  hole 
in  the  ground  where 
a  snake,  or  a  wood- 
chuck,  or  a  chipmunk 
had  made  his  home  ? 
Some  creatures 
build  nests,  and  some 
build  houses.  Birds 

build       neStS       not       tO  The  Oriole's  Nest. 


99 


9 


shelter  themselves,  but  their  eggs  and  their  young 
ones.      The  robin  uses  a  great  deal   of  mud  in 
building  her  nest.     The  oriole  uses 
hair,  thread,  and  long  grass. 

In  the  pictures  are  shown 
some  kinds  of  shelter  which 
various  animals  build  for 
themselves. 

Did  you  ever  turn  over 
a  big  flat  stone  in  the 
meadow?       What    did     , 
you     find     under     it?      : 
Find  out  some  creatures 
which  make  their  homes 
under     logs     or     under 
boards     lying     on     the 
ground,  or  inside  the  bark  of  rotten  logs  in  the 
woods. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  according  to  your  own  observa- 
tions : 

The  rat  finds  a  shelter  in  a .  The  ant  lives  in . 

Snails  creep  into  their .  The  earthworm  finds  a  shelter 

in  .  Sow  bugs  live  .  The  bluebird  builds  a  

of .  The , ,  and find  homes  in  holes  in  the 


Cliff  Swallows'  Nests, 


ground.     , 


-,  and 


live  under  stones. 


100 


American  Homes, 

OUR   SHELTER. 

But  we  need  protection  too.  We  must  have 
houses  to  shelter  us  from  the  rain  and  wind  and 
cold.  Of  what  are  our  houses  made  ? 

Yes,  they  are  made  of  stone,  brick,  mortar,  iron, 
wood,  glass,  paper,  and  many  other  things. 

What  materials  used  in  building  our  houses 
come  out  of  the  ground  ?  Which  grow  out  of  the 
ground  as  plants  or  parts  of  plants?  Make  a  list 


101 


of  all  the  mate- 
rials used  in 
building  houses 
and  tell  where 
each  comes  from. 
But  houses 
everywhere  are 
not  like  our 
houses.  The 

Of     differ- 


Japanese  Homes, 

ent  people  differ  as  greatly  as  their  clothing  and 
food.  If  you  should  travel  in  distant  lands,  you 
would  find  many  curious  people  eating  strange 

foods,  wearing 
very  strange  gar- 
ments, and  liv- 
ing in  very 
strange  houses. 
But  wherever 
you  go,  the  peo- 
ple will  be  found 

African  Homes, 

eating     food    of 

some  kind,  wearing  some  sort  of  clothing,  and 
dwelling  in  some  kind  of  homes. 


102 


THE   OCCUPATIONS -FARMING. 

We  have  just  learned  that  we  have  many  needs. 
Everybody  must  have  food  and  clothing  and  shel- 
ter. Hence,  in  order  to  supply  these  various 
wants,  people  have  many  different  occupations. 


"This  man  is  a  truck  farmer,' 


See  this  man  driving  along  the   road  with  a 

wagon   load  of  vegetables!     Where   did  he   get 

these   vegetables?     Where  will   he   take  them? 
Why? 


103 

This  man  is  a  truck  farmer.  He  raises  vege- 
tables for  the  market.  He  is  going  to  town  to 
sell  his  produce.  What  kind  of  vegetables  do 
you  think  he  has?  Do  you  not  see  the  fine 
level  farms  along  the  road?  Tell  what  you  know 
of  plowing,  planting,  cultivating,  and  gathering 
vegetables.  What  do  farmers  raise  besides  vege- 
tables? 

We  could  scarcely  live  without  the  farmer.  He 
produces  nearly  all  our  food.  The  farmer  gets 
food  for  us  from  the  soil.  This  work  of  the 
farmer  is  called  farming  or  agriculture.  Agri- 
culture is  the  getting  of  food  from  the  ground 
by  tilling  the  soil. 

Copy  these  sentences,  and  fill  the  spaces  properly  :  — 

The  farmer the  soil.     He  plants in  the  ground. 

He  gathers  his  and  takes  them  to  for  sale.      The 

farmer  raises  ,  ,  ,  and  ,  on  his  farm.     The 

farmer's  work  is  called .     The  farmer  plants  in  the , 

he  gathers  his  harvest  in  the . 

Write  answers  to  these  questions :  — 

What  does  your  father  do  ?  What  does  your  nearest  neigh- 
bor do?  Make  a  list  of  what  all  the  boys'  fathers  do.  What 
will  you  do  for  a  living  when  you  grow  up  ?  Do  you  know  of 
anybody  who  has  nothing  to  do  ?  What  tools  does  the  farmer 
use  in  his  work  ?  What  use  does  he  make  of  each  tool  ? 


104 


STUDY  OF   A   FOOD   GRAIN  — WHEAT. 

To  THE  TEACHER.  —  Procure  some  grains  of  wheat.  Pass 
them  about  the  class  for  observation.  This  should  familiarize 
every  pupil  with  the  form,  color,  size,  and  taste  of  wheat.  Let 
pupils  draw  the  kernel  as  it  appears  to  them. 

Then  plant  some  in  soft  moist  soil  and  place  a  few  seeds 
in  wet  cotton,  where  the  growth  may  be  observed  from  day  to 
day.  The  seed  will  gradually  swell  up,  and  after  a  short  time 
a  radicle  will  push  its  way  out  of  the  husk,  and  from  this  tiny 
roots  will  soon  begin  to  grow.  Then  through  a  very  small  slit 
in  the  seed  just  above  the  radicle,  two  very  slender  green 
leaves,  pressed  flat  together,  will  emerge.  Then  growth  be- 
comes more  rapid.  Have  pupils  make  sketches  every  two  or 
three  days. 

If  possible,  make  observations  on  wheat  fields,  on  plowing, 
harvesting,  threshing,  etc.,  or  read  of  these  operations  to  the 
pupils.  Study  other  cereals,  as  corn,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  rice, 
and  require  similar  descriptions. 

FOR  THE  PUPIL.  —  Write  answers  to  the  following  ques- 
tions, using  complete  statements  :  — 

How  long  is  a  wheat  kernel  ? 

Of  what  color  is  the  outside  ?  The  inside  ?  How  do  you 
get  wheat  "  gum  "  from  the  wheat  ? 

What  does  the  seed  need  in  order  to  grow  ?  What  did  you 
do  with  the  wheat  seed  ?  What  had  happened  after  it  had 
been  planted  three  days  ?  After  one  week  ? 

How  is  wheat  got  from  the  grain  ?    What  is  straw  ?    Chaff  ? 

What  does  the  miller  make  from  wheat?  What  do  we 
make  from  flour  ? 


105 


THE   OCCUPATIONS  — STOCK-RAISING 
AND    DAIRYING. 

Here  is  another  picture.  See  how  hilly  and 
stony  the  land  is.  It  is  hard  to  till  the  soil 
here.  The  slopes  are  so  steep  and  there  are  so 
many  rocks  in  the  soil.  This  is  a  poor  place  for 
farming,  but  it  is  a  fine  place  for  stock-raising. 

In  hilly  countries  where  the  land  is  too  rough 


"A  fine  place  for  stock-raising." 


106 


A  Sheep  Pasture, 

and  rocky  for  farming,  and  also  in  other  places 
where  there  is  not  much  rain  but  plenty  of  pas- 
ture land,  people  raise  cattle  and  sheep.  They 
raise  these  animals  and  sell  them  to  butchers 
for  our  food.  They  also  use  the  milk  for  making 
butter  and  cheese.  Men  who  raise  cattle  and 
sheep  for  market  are  called  stock  raisers.  Those 
who  make  butter  and  cheese  and  sell  milk  are 
called  dairymen.  Stock-raising  and  dairying 
are  very  important  occupations. 

The  farmer  supplies  us  with  vegetable  food, 
but  the  stock  raiser  and  dairyman  furnish  us 
with  meat,  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  Most 


107 

farmers  also  raise  some  stock  for  food.  Wher- 
ever we  find  land  which  cannot  be  cultivated 
but  where  grass  will  grow,  we  may  expect  to 
find  many  people  engaged  in  stock-raising. 

Copy  these  sentences  and  fill  the  blank  spaces  with  the  right 
words :  — 

The  stock  raiser  raises , , ,  and .  He  sells 

the  ,  — — ,  and to  the  butcher.  When  the  butcher 

has  killed  and  dressed  them  their  meat  is  called  ,  , 

and .  The  butcher  sells  the  hides  to  the .  He  makes 

these  hides  into  .  The  shoemaker  buys  the  and 

makes  it  into  .  The  dairyman  uses  the  milk  to  make  into 

and .  Stock-raising  and  dairying  are  usually  carried 

on  in  the country. 

STUDY  OF   A   DOMESTIC   ANIMAL  — THE   PIG. 

To  THE  TEACHER.  —  Let  the  pupils  observe,  if  possible,  a 
living  pig.  Where  this  is  not  convenient,  use  pictures  of  pigs, 
or  visit  some  market  where  the  bodies  may  be  observed.  The 
following  features  merit  special  study  :  — 

1.  The  body :  Its  shape,  size,  color,  and  general  appearance. 

2.  The  skin :  Its  texture,  bristles. 

3.  The   head:    Its    shape,   and    appendages;    i.e.,   ears,  eyes, 

snout,  tusks. 

4.  The  limbs :  Front  and  hind  legs,  their  length,  feet,  number 

of  toes. 

5.  The  tail :    Its  size  compared  with  the  body,  its  length  and 

shape  (usually  curled). 


108 


6.  Habits:    (a)   Of    eating,   (6)   of   sleeping,   (<?)  of   grunting 

and  squealing,   (cT)  lack  of  cleanliness. 

7.  Uses :  («)   As  scavengers,  (5)  as  food. 

Study  the  cow,  horse,  and  sheep  in  a  similar  manner. 

FOB  THE  PUPIL.  —  Write  answers  to  the  following  ques- 
tions, using  complete  statements  :  — 

Did  you  ever  see  a  pig  ? 

Where  was  it?  In  what  did  it  live?  What  did  it  eat? 
Out  of  what  did  it  feed  ?  How  did  the  pig  act  while  eating  ? 
Of  what  colors  are  pigs  ?  What  sort  of  clothing  have  they  ? 
Of  what  shape  are  a  pig's  ears  ?  Describe  a  pig's  eyes  and 
nose.  How  many  toes  has  a  pig  on  the  front  feet  ?  On  the 
hind  feet  ?  What  noises  do  pigs  make  ?  When  do  they 
squeal  ?  When  do  they  grunt  ?  Of  what  use  are  pigs  while 
they  live?  What  use  do  we  make  of  them  after  they  have 
been  killed  ?  What  is  pig  flesh  called  ? 


THE    OCCUPATIONS  — LUMBERING. 

In  the  next  picture  you  may  see  men  working 
in  the  woods.  Can  you  tell  what  they  are  doing  ? 
Why  are  they  cutting  down  those  huge  trees? 
They  will  cut  the  trees  down  and  haul  them 
away  to  the  sawmill.  The  logs  will  be  sawn  into 
boards  and  timbers.  From  them  will  be  made 
houses,  boats,  and  many  other  things. 


109 


"  These  men  are  making  lumber," 

These  men  are  making  lumber.  They  are 
called  lumbermen.  Their  work  is  called  lum- 
bering. Many  men  work  all  the  time  at  lumber- 
ing. Sometimes  the  logs  are  cut  in  winter  and 
hauled  or  dragged  to  the  streams.  When  the 
ice  melts,  these  logs  are  floated  down  to  the 
sawmills  where  they  are  to  be  sawn.  Men  who 
go  along  keeping  the  logs  in  the  streams  are 
called  loggers,  and  their  work  is  called  logging. 


110 

Sometimes  the  logs  are  bound  together  and  so 
made  to  float  in  huge  rafts.  All  this  work  of 
getting  lumber  is  called  lumbering. 

STUDY  OF   TREES. 

To  THE  TEACHER.  —  Study  trees  first  in  their  winter  dress, 
so  that  the  mode  of  branching  may  be  more  apparent.  Study 
them  after  the  following  plan  :  — 

1.  Trunks:  Undivided,  partly  divided,  much  divided. 

2.  Bark :  Its  thickness,  color,  manner  of  breaking  off. 

3.  Interior :  Bast,  sapwood,  dead  wood,  rings  of  growth,  pith, 

4.  Branches :  Their  position  relative  to  trunk,  whether  hang- 

ing, sagging,  horizontal,  arching,  ascending,  or  erect. 

5.  Buds :  Their  shape,  size,  position  on  the  twigs ;  also  their 

bud  scales  and  other  devices  for  protection  of  the  young 
branch,  such  as  down,  wax,  or  wool. 

6.  Leaves  : 


Should  be  carefully  described. 


7.  Flowers: 

8.  Fruit: 

9.  Seeds  : 

10.     Uses :  Of  bark,  as  cork,  tanbark,  cinchona,  and  logwood. 
Of  wood  for  buildings,  cabinet  work,  and  other  purposes. 

FOE,  THE  PUPIL.  — Write  answers  to  the  following  questions: 
Name  a  tree  having  an  undivided  trunk.  Is  the  locust  such 
a  tree  ?  What  sort  of  trunk  has  the  pine  ?  Name  a  tree  whose 
branches  sag.  Name  one  whose  branches  droop.  What  trees 
have  horizontal  branches?  What  protects  the  buds  of  the 
horsechestnut  ?  Why  does  the  bark  of  trees  crack  and  peel 
off  ?  What  is  sapwood  ?  Where  is  it  ?  What  causes  the  rings 
in  wood  ? 


Ill 


THE    OCCUPATIONS  — MINING. 

But  besides  farming,  grazing,  and  lumbering, 
there  are  other  ways  of  getting  things  to  supply 
our  wants.  Here  is  a  deep  hole  in  the  ground. 
It  is  not  a  cave. 
It  is  a  mine.  Men 
have  dug  this 
mine  in  order  to 
get  at  the  min- 
erals which  are 
found  under  the 
surface  of  the 
ground. 

We  get  coal, 
iron,  copper,  zinc, 
lead,  gold,  and  many  other  minerals  from  mines. 

These  men  are  Called  miners.  Their  labor  is 
called  mining.  See  the  little  lamps  on  the  miners7 
hats?  It  is  so  dark  in  the  mines  that  the  men 
must  have  lamps  to  give  them  light.  They  have 
to  work  with  both  hands.  That  is  why  they  have 
their  lamps  upon  their  hats.  Mining  is  a  very 
hard  and  dangerous  occupation. 


"These  men  are  called  miners," 


112 


There  are  some  minerals  which  lie  near  the 
surface.  To  get  minerals  of  this  kind,  men  do 
not  need  to  dig  mines,  but  only  to  take  off  the 


"We  call  such  a  place  a  quarry," 

top  soil  and  earth  and  lay  the  mineral  bare. 
Then  they  can  easily  remove  it.  We  call  such 
a  place  a  quarry,  and  this  way  of  getting  minerals 
is  called  quarrying.  Marble,  granite,  sandstone, 
limestone,  and  slate  are  quarried. 

Copy  these  sentences  and  fill  the  blank  spaces  properly  :  — 
Miners  dig  deep  holes  called to  get  minerals.     Quarry- 
men  get for  us.     Mines  are ,  but  quarries  are  . 

Salt,  coal,  and  gold  come  from .  Marble,  slate,  and  sand- 
stone come  from .  Miners  wear  lamps  on  their . 


113 


THE   OCCUPATIONS  — FISHING. 


"The  men  are  fishing  with  a  net," 

Here  are  some  men  in  a  boat.  The  boat  is 
small.  The  men  are  fishing  with  a  net.  We 
hope  they  will  make  a  big  haul.  These  men 
go  fishing  every  day.  It  is  their  occupation, 
and  in  this  way  they  make  a  living. 

In  some  places  there  are  many  hundreds  of 
people  who  labor  at  fishing.  Such  men  are  called 

GEOG.  NAT.   STUDIES  —  8 


114 

fishermen.  Their  work  is  of  course  called  fishing. 
Is  it  not  a  dangerous  business  ?  When  they  have 
caught  the  fishes,  they  clean,  salt,  and  dry  them 
for  the  market. 

The  men  in  the  picture  sometimes  go  out  to 
sea  and  fish  for  cod,  mackerel,  and  herring.  Men 
who  go  far  away  on  long  voyages  in  search  of 
whales  are  called  whalers,  and  their  labor  is 
whaling.  Others  go  in  search  of  seals.  This  is 
called  sealing. 

Copy  these  sentences  and  fill  the  blank  spaces  properly  -.  — 
Men  who  go  out  upon  the  water  in  search  of  fish,  are  called 
Their  business  is  .     They  catch 


and .     They  dry  these and  cure  them.     Men  who  go 

in  search  of  whales  are  called .      Fishermen  always  live 

near .     They  fish  with .     Nets  are  made  of . 


THE  OCCUPATIONS  — MANUFACTURING. 

The  farmer,  the  grazier,  and  the  fisherman  are 
getting  food  and  clothing  for  us  from  the  ground 
or  out  of  the  water.  The  lumberman,  the  miner, 
and  the  quarryman  are  getting  materials  for 
our  shelter  and  food  and  fire. 


115 

Such  things  are  called  raw  materials.  They 
come  directly  from  the  earth.  Very  few  of 
them  are  fit  for  our  use  when  they  come  fresh 
from  the  land  or  water.  Something  must  be 
done  to  these  raw  materials  before  they  can  be 
used. 

The  wheat  must  be  ground  into  flour,  and  the 
flour  must  be  made  into  bread.  The  flax  must  be 
spun  and  woven.  The  iron  ore  must  be  smelted 
and  made  pure.  The  timber  cut  by  the  lumber- 
men must  be  made  into  houses  and  furniture. 
The  stock  of  the  stock  raisers  must  be  turned 
into  beef,  mutton,  or  pork.  A  great  deal  of 
milk  or  cream  must  be  churned  into  butter  or 
made  into  cheese.  The  stone  from  the  quarry 
must  be  cut  and  made  into  buildings.  Even 
the  coal  and  the  salt  must  be  broken,  sorted,  and 
sifted  before  they  can  be  ready  for  use. 

Thus,  many  men  are  required  to  change  these 
raw  materials  into  prepared  ones.  This  work  is 
called  manufacturing. 

Great  manufactories  are  engaged  in  packing, 
salting,  canning,  and  preserving  fish,  lobsters, 
and  oysters,  which  the  fishermen  get  for  our  food. 


116 


A  Great  Manufacturing  City, 

Others  are  equally  busy  working  over   minerals 
into  various  useful  articles. 

You  can  now  understand  that  great  numbers  of 
people  earn  their  living  by  farming,  stock-raising, 
lumbering,  mining,  quarrying,  fishing,  and  manu- 
facturing. These  are  the  chief  occupations  of 
man. 


Manufacturing  is  .      A  factory  is  . 

— ,  ,  and  are  manufactured  articles 


made  of 


Leather  is  made  of 


Shoes  are 
Candy  is  made  of 


117 


.      My  coat  is  made  of 


This  house  is  made  of 


Bricks  are  made  of  .       Rags  are  used  for  making 


MAKING  FLOUR. 

Here  is  a  picture  of  a  great  farm.     It  is  near 
the  end  of   the   harvest   time.      The  wheat   has 


"They  are  thrashing  the  wheat," 

been  cut  down  and  many  men  are  at  work  in  the 
field.     Do  you  know  what  they  are  doing? 

Oh,  yes,  they  are  thrashing  the  wheat.     Near 
the    thrasher    stands    a    load    of    wheat.      The 


118 


sheaves  of  wheat  are  thrust  into  the  thrasher. 
The  grain  is  beaten  out  and  separated  from  the 
chaff  and  straw.  See  the  pile  of  straw. 

Some  of  the  men  are  filling  bags  with  the  grain 
as  it  pours  out  below.  Near  us  is  a  man  driving 
a  four-horse  team.  He  has  a  load  of  grain. 


The  interior  of  a  flour  mill,' 


In  this  picture  we  see  the  interior  of  a  flour 
mill.    The  grain  is  taken  to  the  mill  to  be  ground. 


119 


It  must  be  crushed  very  fine  between  iron  rollers. 
Then  it  is  sifted  through  fine  silk  cloth.  At  last 
it  is  put  into  barrels  or  sacks  and  sent  to  market. 
We  buy  it  to  make  into  bread. 

Write  answers  to  these  questions :  — 

From  what  is  flour  made  ?  Name  three  things  which  we  eat 
that  are  made  from  flour.  What  is  meal  ?  How  is  bread  made  ? 
What  color  is  flour  ?  Is  raw  flour  good  to  eat  ? 


MAKING   CLOTH. 


Here  is  another  picture.     It  is  of  a  cotton  field. 
Do  you  see  the  cotton  pickers  at  work?     They 


"Do  you  see  the  cotton  pickers  at  work?" 


120 


are  gathering  the  cotton  from  the  cotton  plant. 
They  pack  it  in  large  baskets  and  carry  it  to 
the  gin. 

The  cotton  gin  is  a  machine  which  picks  the 
seeds  from  the  cotton.  Then  the  cotton  is 
pressed  into  bales  and  sent  to  the  factory. 

In  this  picture  we  see  the  inside  of  a  cotton 
factory.  These  large  machines  are  for  spinning 
the  cotton  into  threads.  There  are  many  girls  and 
boys  who  work  in  this  cotton  factory  tending  the 

machines. 

When  the  cot- 
ton has  been 
spun  into  threads 
it  is  woven  into 
cloth. 

On  the  next 
page  is  a  picture 
of  other  ma- 
chines. Thesema- 
chines  are  called 
looms.  The  threads  are  put  into  the  loom  in  a 
very  peculiar  way.  Then  more  thread  is  placed 
in  an  instrument  called  a  shuttle.  The  shuttle 


These  machines  are  for  spinning  the  cotton," 


121 


moves  to  and  fro  between  the  threads  in  the 
loom  and  so  the  cloth  is  woven. 

In  olden  times  people  wove  cloth  by  hand. 
Now  this  is  done  by  machines.  In  some  fac- 
tories cloth  is 
woven  from  wool. 
In  others  it  is 
woven  from  silk. 
Other  kinds  of 
cloth  are  made 
from  flax,  hemp, 
and  the  hair  of 
various  animals. 

Name  five  different  "These  machines  are  called  looms," 

kinds  of  cloth.   Name 

five  kinds  of  cotton  cloth.  How  is  cotton  obtained  ?  How  is 
the  fiber  taken  from  the  seed?  Tell  how  it  is  spun.  What  is 
a  loom  ?  For  what  is  it  used  ?  How  was  cloth  formerly  woven  ? 
How  is  it  woven  now  ?  Where  do  we  get  silk  ?  Where  do  we 
get  wool?  Where  do  we  get  linen ?  What  are  ropes  made  of  ? 

STUDY  OF  PLANTS  — COTTON. 

To  THE  TEACHER.  —  In  studying  the  cotton  plant,  very  little 
can  be  done  with  the  plant  itself,  owing  to  its  limited  geographi- 
cal range  ;  but  cotton  in  the  pod  is  not  hard  to  get,  and  pic- 
tures of  cotton  in  all  stages  of  its  growth  can  easily  be  had. 


122 


It  is  recommended,  therefore,  to  study  about  cotton  as  much 
as  possible  from  these  various  sources,  and  also  to  encourage 
the  pupils  to  study  the  hollyhock,  marsh  mallow,  and  other 
malvaceous  plants  for  comparison. 

Cotton  fiber  should  be  seen  under  the  microscope,  and  com- 
pared with  fibers  of  silk,  wool,  flax,  and  hemp.  Talk  about 
the  gin  and  the  loom,  and  find  pictures  of  them. 

Let  flax  and  hemp  be  planted  in  the  schoolroom  and  studied 
as  they  grow.  It  is  suggested,  also,  that  samples  of  various 
fabrics  made  from  these  textiles  be  collected,  examined,  and 
labeled  for  future  use. 

FOR  THE  PUPIL.  —  Where  does  cotton  grow  ?  What  part 
of  the  plant  is  cotton  ?  What  other  plants  have  a  growth  on 
the  seed  ?  Of  what  color  is  cotton  ?  Describe  a  fiber  of  cotton. 

How  is  the  cotton  removed  from  the  seed  ?  How  is  it  made 
into  cloth  ?  Name  five  kinds  of  cotton  cloth. 


MAKING   IRON   AND   STEEL. 

On  page  111  of  this  book  is  a  picture  of  the 
inside  of  a  mine.  See  how  dark  it  is.  The  men 
have  small  lamps  on  their  hats. 

The  mine  is  an  iron  mine,  and  the  miners  are 
digging  the  iron  ore.  The  ore  will  be  taken  out 
of  the  mine  and  carried  to  a  furnace  to  be  smelted 
or  purified ;  for  the  ore  is  not  pure  iron. 


123 


"Do  you  see  the  melted  iron  running  from  the  furnace?" 

In  the  furnace  the  ore  is  heated  with  coal  and 
limestone.  These  take  out  the  impurities.  Then 
the  iron  melts  and  flows  out  of  the  furnace. 

Do  you  see  the  melted  iron  running  from  the 
furnace?  It  runs  into  small  trenches  in  the  sand 
on  the  floor.  It  cools  there.  When  cold,  it  is 
called  "pig  iron."  Pig  iron  is  rough  and  coarse. 
It  must  be  melted  again  and  worked  with  machin- 
ery to  change  it  into  steel. 


124 


Name  ten  things  made  of  iron  or  steel.  Tell  one  thing  for 
which  each  is  used.  What  is  ore  ?  What  must  be  done  to  the 
ore  to  get  the  iron  out  ?  What  things  in  the  schoolroom  are 
made  of  iron  ?  What  farmer's  tools  are  of  steel  ?  What 
shoemaker's  tools  are  steel  ?  What  miner's  tools  are  steel  ? 


THE   OCCUPATIONS  — TRADE   OR   COMMERCE. 

Is  flour  made  where  you  live?  Is  steel 'made 
here?  Are  there  any  cotton  factories  near  you? 
What  is  the  principal  business  where  you  live? 

Everybody  must  have  flour  and  cloth,  and  tools 
of  iron.  But  these  things  are  not  made  every- 
where. Some  one  must  take  these  things  from 
where  they  are  made  and  carry  them  to  other 
places  where  they  are  needed. 

The  farmer  raises  more  fruit  and  vegetables 
than  he  needs.  He  sells  them  to  the  produce 
man  for  money.  The  buyer  sends  them  to  the 
city  where  there  is  a  ready  market  for  them. 

The  mines  are  among  the  mountains.  The 
fishes  are  in  the  sea.  Timber  grows  in  the 
woods.  Some  one  must  carry  raw  materials 
from  where  they  are  found  to  the  places  where 
they  are  to  be  manufactured.  Some  one  must 


125 

bring  back  manufactured  articles  to  the  places 
where  people  need  to  use  them.  This  is  called 
trade  or  commerce.  The  trader  takes  what  is  not 
needed  in  one  place  and  carries  it  to  another 
place  where  it  is  needed. 

What  did  you  eat  for  dinner  ?  How  many  of  these  things 
are  found  where  you  live  ?  Where  did  the  salt  come  from  ? 
Where  did  the  pepper  come  from  ?  Where  do  fish,  beef,  olives, 
coffee,  chocolate,  sugar,  and  tea  come  from  ?  What  is  the  table 
made  of  ?  Does  it  grow  here  ?  Of  what  is  the  tablecloth 
made  ?  Does  it  grow  here  ?  What  do  you  wear  on  your  feet  ? 
Is  it  made  where  you  live  ?  Of  what  is  your  coat  made  ?  Fill 

blanks :    My  dress   is  made  of   .      It  comes  from  . 

Pearl   buttons   are   made   of   .     They   come   from   — — . 

Sugar  is  made  from  .      It  grows  in  . 


TRANSPORTATION   BY   LAND. 

The  next  picture  is  of  a  very  busy  city.  It  is 
a  manufacturing  city.  You  can  tell  that  by  the 
great  number  of  factories  and  shops.  See  how 
the  black  smoke  pours  out  of  the  many  tall  fac- 
tory chimneys. 

But  this  city  is  also  a  commercial  city.  The 
people  are  engaged  in  many  kinds  of  trade.  You 
may  know  this  by  the  many  boats  and  trains  of 


126 


"A  very  busy  city," 

cars  to  be  seen  in  the  picture.  These  cars  and 
boats  bring  raw  materials  here  to  be  made  into 
various  articles.  They  carry  away  these  manu- 
factured articles  to  distant  places  where  they  are 
needed. 

There  are  two  principal  ways  of  carrying  arti- 
cles from  one  place  to  another.  The  first  way  is 
by  land.  The  second  way  is  by  water. 

In  our  country  commerce  on  land  is  mostly 
carried  on  by  railroads.  Both  people  and  freight 


127 

are  transported  in  this  way.  In  some  mountain- 
ous countries  men  travel  by  being  carried  on  the 
backs  of  other  men. 

Mules  and  reindeer  are  used  in  some  countries 
instead  of  horses  and  oxen.  In  cities  cars  may 
be  seen  drawn  by  horses  or  propelled  by  cables 
or  electricity. 

In  very  cold  countries  dogs  are  used  to  draw 
sleds  or  sledges  over  the  ice  and  snow.  In  very 
hot  sandy  countries,  goods  are  loaded  upon  the 
backs  of  camels.  Large  numbers  of  camels  are 
used  to  carry  things  across  the  great  dry  plains. 


TRANSPORTATION   BY   WATER. 

When  goods  are  to  be  taken  on  the  water,  boats 
are  used.  There  are  many  kinds  of  boats.  Some 
go  by  means  of  steam.  Others  sail  by  wind. 
Such  boats  have  sails.  In  the  picture  on  the 
next  page  you  see  many  kinds  of  boats.  River 
boats  have  huge  paddle  wheels  on  each  side  or 
a  large  paddle  wheel  at  the  stern. 

Canals  are  large  ditches  dug  across  the  land  so 
as  to  join  two  streams  or  two  lakes  or  any  two 


128 


bodies  of  water.  Where  they  change  their  level 
in  going  up  or  down  a  slope,  locks  are  built 
to  hold  the  water  and  keep  it  from  flowing. 


"  There  are  many  kinds  of  boats," 

Canal    boats   are   long   and   narrow.      They   are 
usually  drawn  by  horses  or  mules. 

Long,  flat  boats  called  barges  are  used  for 
carrying  coal,  brick,  stone,  lumber,  and  other 
heavy  articles.  Small  steamboats  are  used  often 
to  tow  larger  boats  into  port.  Such  boats  are 
called  tugs.  In  one  of  the  pictures  two  tugs 
may  be  seen. 


129 


In  small  streams  only  very  small  boats  can  be 
used.  Such  boats  must  be  paddled  or  rowed 
through  the  water.  In  this  picture  you  may  see 
two  canoes  loaded  with  skins.  There  are  trappers 
in  these  canoes.  They  will  take  their  skins  to 
market. 

Huge  rafts  of  logs  are  sometimes  made  to  sail 
by  putting  sails  on 
them  like  the  sails  of 
a  ship.  The  wind  then 
carries  the  rafts  where 
the  logs  can  be  sawn 
up  into  lumber. 

Goods  are  not  trans- 
ported now  as  they  used  to  be.  Before  steam 
was  used,  sailors  had  to  depend  on  the  winds. 
Sometimes  it  took  many  weeks  to  make  jour- 
neys which  can  now  be  made  in  a  few  days  w^ith 
the  use  of  steam. 

Have  you  ever  been  away  from  home  ?  How  did  you  go  ? 
Write  all  you  can  about  the  journey,  telling  how  you  went  and 
what  you  saw  on  the  way. 

What  are  cars?  What  is  a  train  ?  What  is  used  to  draw  a 
train  of  cars  ?  What  makes  it  go  ?  Describe  a  stock  car  ;  a 
flat  car.  Name  five  things  carried  in  the  cars. 

GEOG.  NAT.   STUDIES 9 


"Such  boats  must  be  paddled," 


130 


Arthur, 


WHITE   PEOPLE   AND   BLACK   PEOPLE. 

Here  is  the  picture  of  a  little  boy.     His  eyes 

are  blue  and  his  hair  is  light  colored  and  wavy. 
His  name  is  Arthur.  Arthur's 
father  is  a  merchant.  He  owns 
a  large  store  in  the  city.  Arthur 
goes  to  school  and  reads  in  the 
second  reader.  He  plays  mar- 
bles, and  ball,  and  all  the  other 
boys'  games  in  their  season.  See 
what  red  cheeks  he  has !  It  is 

because  he  has  been  running  all  the  way  to  school. 
Arthur  has  a  sister  Grace.     Grace  is  a  very 

pretty  child,  with  light  hair,  blue 

eyes,   and  a  fair  skin   like   her 

brother.     Grace  plays  with  dolls 

in  the  house,  but  Arthur  would 

much  rather  fly  his  kite  or  play 

ball  in  the  meadow. 

Here   is    another    boy.      How 

does  he  differ  in  appearance  from 

Arthur?     Did  you  ever  see  a  boy  who  looks  like 

this  one?     Let  us  give  this  boy  a  name.      We 


Robert, 


131 

will  call  him  Robert.  Robert's  skin  is  not  white. 
His  skin  is  dark  brown,  almost  black.  We  say 
Robert  is  a  colored  boy.  Some  people  would  say 
he  is  a  negro.  The  word  negro  means  "black," 
and  is  often  applied  to  black  people. 


"In  Africa  they  are  almost  like  wild  people," 

Robert's  mouth  is  not  like  a  white  boy's  mouth. 
His  lips  are  thicker.  His  nose  is  broader,  and  it 
is  quite  flat.  He  has  thick  curly  hair.  It  curls 
up  very  tight  and  looks  like  wool.  His  forehead 
slopes  back.  His  teeth  are  very  white. 


132 

Most  of  the  negroes  in  the  world  live  in  a  very 
hot  country  far  across  the  sea.  A  long  time  ago 
some  negroes  were  brought  here  as  slaves.  Their 
children  and  grandchildren  were  kept  as  slaves. 
That  is  how  there  came  to  be  so  many  colored 
people  in  this  country.  Now  they  are  all  free. 

In  Africa  where  the  negroes  first  lived  they 
wear  very  little  clothing,  cannot  read  or  write, 
and  are  almost  like  wild  people.  But  here,  where 
we  know  them,  they  have  learned  to  dress  and 
live  much  as  the  white  people  do. 

Most  of  the  negroes  in  our  country  still  live 
in  the  South  but  some  live  in  nearly  all  of  the 
country.  They  go  to  school  and  to  church,  have 
shops  and  stores,  work  on  farms  and  in  the  mines 
and  make  good  citizens. 


RED  PEOPLE  AND  YELLOW  PEOPLE. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  red  man?  We  call  the  red 
man  an  Indian.  The  Indians  once  lived  here 
where  we  do.  They  were  very  wild.  They  lived 
in  strange  huts  made  of  skins  and  the  bark  of 
trees.  These  tents  were  called  wigwams. 


133 


The  Indians  are  called  red  men  because  their 
skin  is  reddish  in  color.  Indians  have  very 
strange  names.  Here 
is  one  whose  name  is 
Black  Bear.  See  what 
high  cheek  bones  he 
has.  His  nose  is 
hooked,  and  his  eyes 
are  very  keen.  His 
hair  is  long,  straight, 
coarse,  and  very  black. 

The  red  man,  when 
in  his  own  home  in  the 
woods,  is  a  great  hun- 
ter. He  is  also  fond 
of  fighting.  He  wears 
feathers  in  his  hair  and  sometimes  paints  his 
face.  Some  of  his  clothes  are  made  of  skins. 

Black  Bear's  wife  is  called  a  squaw.  His 
babies  are  called  papooses.  The  squaws  do  all 
the  work  while  their  husbands  hunt  or  fish. 

See  the  papoose  in  the  next  picture.  This 
papoose  is  tied  up  in  a  bundle  against  a  board 
and  strapped  to  its  mother's  back. 


Black  Bear, 


134 


Many  years  ago  all  this  country  of  ours  was 
inhabited  by  the  red  men.  When  the  white 

people  came  across  the 
sea,  they  found  many  In- 
dians here.  At  first  they 
lived  in  a  friendly  way 
with  the  Indians.  After 
a  while  there  were  quar- 
rels between  the  white  peo- 
ple and  the  Indians  about 
the  ownership  of  the  land. 
The  whites  were  stronger 
and  had  better  weapons. 
The  red  men  were  driven 
away  to  the  far  west,  and 
now  only  a  few  remain  in  this  country. 

What  a  funny-looking  fellow  in  the  next  pic- 
ture !  He  is  not  a  negro  like  Robert,  nor  is  he  a 
red  man  like  Black  Bear.  He  is  a  Chinaman. 
His  skin  is  neither  red,  nor  black,  nor  white. 
He  has  a  yellowish  skin.  His  name  is  Sing  Lee. 
He  shaves  his  head,  all  but  the  crown,  and  lets 
the  hair  on  the  crown  grow  long.  He  braids  this 
hair  into  a  long  tail  or  cue. 


A  Papoose, 


135 


At  home   Sing  Lee  lives  differently  from  us. 
His  home  is  a  very  funny  house.     His  food  is 


"His  name  is  Sing  Lee," 

mainly  fish  and  rice.  In  his  own  land  much  tea 
grows,  and  the  Chinaman  raises  and  gathers  the 
tea  and  sells  it.  In  our  own  country  the  China- 
man is  employed  mostly  as  a  laundryman.  The 
Chinese  wash  and  iron  our  clothes,  and  some 
people  have  them  for  cooks. 

Sing  Lee  dresses  very  oddly.  He  wears  a 
long  gown  and  loose  trousers.  His  shoes  are 
very  short  and  blunt,  with  wooden  soles.  His 


136 


sleeves  are  wide  and 
loose.  His  clothing 
does  not  seem  to  fit 
him  very  well.  His 
writing  is  very  strange. 
The  little  Chinese 
boy  whom  you  see  in 
this  picture  has  a  very 
pleasant  home.  His 
parents  are  not  poor 
like  Sing  Lee.  See 
how  prettily  he  is 
dressed.  When  he  is 
a  little  older  he  will 
he  becomes 


A  Chinese  Boy. 

go  to   school ;    and  when 

a  man  he  may  be  a  rich  merchant  or 

an  officer  in  the  army. 

A  white  man's  hair  is  -  — .     His  eyes  are  -   — . 

His  skin  is  -   — .     A  black  man  is  called  a . 

This  word  means  -   — .     The  negro's  lips  are . 

His  hair  is and .     The  negro  came  from 

.      The  red  man  is  called  an .     He  lives 

in  a made  of .     His  children  are  called 

.    The  Chinaman  comes  from  • .     He  wears 

his  hair  in  a .     He  eats and . 


Chinese  Writing. 


137 


PEOPLE   LIVE   TOGETHER. 

You  have  seen  how  different  people  are :  Black, 
red,  yellow,  and  white.  But  these  are  not  the 
only  ways  in  which  people  differ.  They  differ 
according  to  their  occupations.  The  farmer  and 
the  sailor  are  very  unlike  each  other.  Their  work 
makes  them  different.  It  is  so  with  the  merchant 
and  the  mechanic. 

Climate  and  slope  have  much  to  do  with  mak- 


A  Village  Street. 


138 


A  City  Street, 

ing  people  different.  People  do  not  live  alone. 
They  are  fond  of  society.  They  are  usually  found 
living  together  in  communities.  Such  communi- 
ties are  called  villages,  towns,  or  cities. 

Villages  are  built  in  places  where  the  people 
can  find  work  to  do.  In  villages  near  the  sea,  the 
people  are  usually  engaged  in  fishing  or  commerce. 
Among  the  mountains,  the  villages  may  be  built 
by  people  who  are  engaged  in  mining  or  lumber- 


139 


ing.     Other  towns  grow  up  where  the  other  occu- 
pations can  be  practiced. 

As  more  and  more  people  come  to  live  in  a 
village,  more  houses  must  be  built.  Streets  must 
be  laid  out.  Water  works,  lights,  and  public 
buildings  must  be  provided.  Then  parks  are  laid 
out  and  the  village  becomes  a  city.  The  principal 
difference  between  a  village  and  a  city  is  its  size. 

If  people  were  to  live  alone,  each  man  would 
have  to  be  his  own  farmer,  his  own  fisherman, 
his  own  butcher,  his  own  carpenter.  In  short, 
each  man  would  have  to  do  everything  for  him- 
self. But  where 
people  live  to- 
gether, one  man 
does  one  kind  of 
work  and  others 
do  other  kinds, 
and  then  they 
exchange  their 
wares.  Where 
each  person  has 
only  one  kind  of  work  to  do,  the  work  must  be 
better  done  because  the  man  will  become  more 


An  Indian  Village, 


140 

skillful.  This  way  of  doing  is  called  "  division 
of  labor.'7  Among  savages,  there  is  no  division 
of  labor.  The  more  civilized  people  are,  the 
more  their  labor  is  divided. 

A  few  people  living  together  form  a  village. 
More  people  form  a  city.  Many  villages  and 
cities,  having  much  trade  with  each  other,  are 
united,  together  with  the  country  between  them, 
into  a  larger  community  called  a  state. 


GOVERNMENT  —  HOME. 

What  do  we  call  the  place  where  we  live? 
Yes,  we  call  it  our  home.  Do  all  boys  and  girls 
have  homes  ?  Are  all  homes  alike  ?  Who  live 
together  in  the  houses  which  we  call  our  home  ? 
Yes,  there  are  father,  mother,  brothers,  and 
sisters  living  together  in  our  homes.  Is  it  not 
pleasant  to  be  at  home  when  all  the  family  are 
there  ?  How  we  laugh,  and  play,  and  run  about 
when  we  are  all  at  home. 

Every  one  at  home  has  some  work  to  do. 
What  does  your  father  do?  What  is  your 
mother's  work?  The  girls  help  mother,  and  the 


141 

boys  help  father  in  the  work  about  the  home. 
What  do  you  do  when  you  are  at  home? 

Can  you  always  do  just  as  you  please  ?  Why 
not?  When  the  children  become  unruly,  who 
checks  them  ?  When  they  quarrel  and  do  other 
naughty  things,  who  punishes  them?  Who  pro- 
tects the  children  from  harm  ?  It  is  not  well  for 
children  always  to  do  as  they  please,  for  some- 
times children  become  naughty,  and  need  to  be 
punished,  and  sometimes  there  are  lazy  children 
who  must  be  made  to  do  their  share  of  the  work 
at  home. 

You  see,  then,  that  some  sort  of  government  is 
necessary  in  every  home.  Father  and  mother  are 
the  officers  who  execute  this  government  of  the 
home.  Both  parents  and  children  are  the  mem- 
bers of  this  government.  This  government  ought 
to  be  such  as  to  benefit  all  its  members. 

Parents  have  a  right  to  be  obeyed,  and  they 
have  a  right  to  expect  the  help  of  their  children. 
Children  have  a  right  to  expect  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter  from  their  parents.  They  also  have 
the  right  to  be  educated.  It  is  our  duty  to  love 
and  obey  our  parents. 


142 


GOVERNMENT  — SCHOOL  AND  COUNTRY. 

We  have  seen  that  government  at  home  is  very 
necessary.  Without  it,  our  homes  would  become 
very  unpleasant  places  to  live  in.  Father  and 
mother  must  use  all  their  authority  to  govern 
the  home  so  that  the  children  may  grow  up  to 
be  good  men  and  women. 

But  the  home  is  not  the  only  government 
under  which  we  live.  Whenever  people  come 
together  in  large  numbers,  there  is  need  of  some 
other  kind  of  government.  Can  you  not  think  of 
another  kind  of  government  somewhat  like  the 
home  and  yet  very  different  from  it? 

Oh,  yes,  it  is  the  school.  The  teachers  are 
the  officers,  and  the  pupils  are  the  members. 
Each  has  certain  rights  and  duties. 

What  are  some  of  your  rights  in  school  ?  Your 
duties?  What  are  the  janitor's  duties?  In  some 
schools  the  teacher  appoints  pupils  to  help  her  at 
times.  Such  pupils  are  called  monitors.  What 
are  the  duties  of  monitors? 

There  are  other  kinds  of  government  higher 
than  the  school.  The  children  have  no  part  in 


148 


The  Capitol  at  Washington,  where  the  Laws  of  our  Country  are  Made, 

these,  for  they  are  governments  of  the  people. 
Men  and  women  as  well  as  children  must  have 
government  over  them.  There  are  bad  men  and 
women  as  well  as  good  ones. 

Government  is  needed  to  make  and  enforce 
laws  for  the  protection  of  good  people  against 
the  acts  of  the  bad.  So  parents  make  rules  for 
the  home  in  order  that  the  good  boys  and 
girls  shall  not  be  wronged  by  the  bad  ones. 
If  children  are  naughty,  they  are  punished  by 


144 

their  parents.  It  is  right  that  this  should  be 
so.  If  people  are  bad,  they  must  be  punished 
by  the  government. 

Rules  made  by  the  government  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  people  are  called  laws.  Laws  are 
made  against  theft,  house  breaking,  fire  spreading,, 
killing,  and  many  other  offenses. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  government.  Some 
of  these  kinds  are  the  town  or  township,  the 
county,  the  state,  and  the  nation.  The  township 
comes  next  to  the  school. 

Name  the  township  in  which  you  live.  The 
township's  officers  are  a  justice  of  the  peace,  a 
constable,  an  assessor,  and  in  some  places  a  tax 
collector  and  town  clerk.  Can  you  tell  the 
duties  of  each  of  these  officers?  What  are  taxes 
for?  Why  must  there  be  taxes?  Name  some- 
thing for  which  the  tax  money  is  spent. 

We  shall  soon  learn  much  about  our  country. 
The  United  States  is  the  highest  government 
under  which  we  live.  We  love  it  best  of  all 
because  it  is  our  native  land. 


[VERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY, 
BERKELEY 


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